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I 



IINSTITUTES 



OF 



BIBLICAL CRITICISM; 



HEADS 



OP 



ON THAT SUBJECT^ 



READ IN THE 



BY GILBERT GERARD, D. D. 

Professor of Divinity, and one of his Majesty's Chaplains in Ordinary in Scotland. 



FIRST AMERICAN EDITION. 



BOSTON : 
PUBLISHED BY CUMMINGS AND BILLIARD, NO 1 CORNHILL. 

CAMBRIDGE : 

UNIV. PRESS — BILLIARD AND METCALF. 

1823. 



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-p 



.\\ 



* av- ' 



TO 

HERBERT MARSH, BD. F.R.S. 

TRANSLATOR OF MICHAELIS, 

WHOSE LEARNED LABOURS 
ENTITLE HIM TO A HIGH RANK AMONG BIBLICAL SCHOLARS, 

THE FOLLOWING 

ATTEMPT TO REDUCE THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND RULES OP 
SACRED CRITICISM TO A REGULAR SYSTEM 

IS MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, BY 

GILBERT GERARD. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION, 



PART L 



THE SOURCES OF BIBLICAL CRITICISM, 



CHAPTER I, 



MANUSCRIPTS kNJ) EDITIONS OF THE BOOKS OF SCRIPTURE, S 

Sect. I. The Authority of Manuscripts, - - 5 
Sect. II. The use of M/muscripts, and the Manner of 

using them, - - - - - 7 

Sect. III. The Juthority of the printed Editions, - 10 
Sect. IV. The necessity of correcting the printed Editions 

by Manuscripts, - - - - 14 

Sect. V. The ^Samaritan Pentateuch, - - - .18 



VI CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES, - - - - 24 

Sect. I. 21ie Origin of the Hebrew Language, and of the 

Greeky ----- 24 

Sect. II. Written Language, particularly the Hebrew and 

the Greeks - - - - - 27 

Sect. III. Of the Hebrew Vowel Points and Accents, and 

the Greek Spirits and Accents, - - 30 

Sect. IV. Of the Structure and Genius of the Hebrew 

Language, - - - - - 37 

Sect. V. Of the Language of the JSTew Testament - 48 

Sect. VI. Of the Use of the Original Languages in Crit- 
icism, - - - - - 51 



CHAPTER III. 



the kindred languages, - - - -55 

Sect. I. What Languages are useful, - - - 55 

Sect. II. The J^ecessity and Propriety of seeking Jlssistance 

from the Kindred Languages, - - 58 

Sect. III. Uses of the Kindred Languages in determining 

the true Reading, - - - 59 

Sect. IV. Uses of the Kindred Languages in interpreting 

Scripture, - - - - - 60 



CONTENTS^. Yfl» 



CHAPTER IV. 



VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES, 



67 



Sect. I. Oj the Chaldee Paraphrases, - - - 68 

Sect. II. Of the Greek Versions, - - - 71 

Sect. III. Of the Samaritan Versions, - - - 78 

Sect. IV. Of the Latin Versions, . ^ - 80 

Sect. V. Of the Syriac Versions, - - - - 83 

Sect. VI. Of the other Jlncient Versions, - - 85 

Sect. VII. Of Modern Versions, - - - - 89 

Sect. Vlll. Distinctions of Versions, - - 93 
Se6t. IX. Of the Use of Versions for determining Readings, 95 

Sect. X. Of the Use of Versions for Interpretation^ - 100 



CHAPTER V. 

the circumstances relating to the books of scripture, 105 

Sect. I. Of the Kinds of Composition in Scripture, - 105 
Sect. II. Of the *^uthors of the Books of Scripture - - 110 
Sect. III. Of the Times of Writing the Books of Scrip- 
ture, - - - - - 113 
Sect. IV. Of the Occasions of the Books of Scripture 115 
Sect. V. Of the Scope and Design of the Books of Scrip- 
ture, - - - - - 119 
Sect. VI. Of the Flan and Distribution of the Books of 

Scripture, - - - - J23 

Sect. VII. Of the Connexion of the Parts in the Books of 

Scripture, - - - - 131 



ViU 



• ONTKNTS. 



CHAPTER VI. 



COMPARISON OF SCRIPTURE WITH ITSELF, - - 136 

Sect. I. Comparison of Parallel Passages, - - 136 

Sect. II. Comparison of Passages not Parallel, - - 145 
Sect. III. Comparison of Particular Passages with the 

Analogy of Faith, - - - 147 



CHAPTER VII. 



history and manners, - - - - - 152 

Sect. I. Of Civil History, - - - - 152 

Sect. 11. Of Political History - - - - 155 

Sect. III. Of Customs and Manners, - - 158 

Sect. IV. Of Chronology, - - - - 165 

Sect. V. .Of Geography, - - - - 167 

Sect. VI. Of JX'atural History, - - - - 171 



CHAPTER VIII. 



opinions and learning, - - - - 173 

Sect. I. Of the Religious Opinions of Ancient JSTationsy 173 

Sect. II. Of Ancient Learning and Philosophy - - 177 

Sect. IU. Of the Jewish Sects and Parties, - - 180 

Sect. IV. Of Jewish Opinions, - - - - 186 

Sect. V. Of the Jewish Writers, - - - 191 

Sect. VI. Of the Ancient Chrislicm JVriters, - - 200 

Sect. VII. Of Modern Christian Wfiiers, - - 204 

Sect. VUI. Of Pagan Writers, - - - 208 



CONTENTS. IX 

PART II. 

THE OBJECTS OF SCRIPTURE CRITICISM, - - - 211 

CHAPTER I. 

CORRECTIVE OR EMENDATORY CRITICISM, - - 212 

Sect. I. The JVature of a Various Readings - - 212 

Sect. 11. The Sources of False Readings, - - 215 

Sect. III. The Kinds of False Readings, - - 230' 

Sect. IV. Rules of judging concerning Various Readings^ 244 



CHAPTER II. 

THE EXPLICATION OF SEPARATE WORDS. - -■ 270 

Sect [. The Combination of Letters into Words, - 270 

Sect. II. Irregular Forms and Flexions of Words, - 274 

Sect. HI. The signification of Words, - - - 277 

Sect. IV. T/te Us.«-eo/JW>ms, - - - 290 

Sect. V. TJie Usage of Verbs, - - - - 298 

Sect. VI. The Usage of Particles, - - - 322 
Sect. VII. Difficulties in determining the Parts of Speech, 338 



CHAPTER III. 



the EXPLICATION OF COMBINATIONS OF WORDS, - - 342 

Sect. I. Difficulties in Punctuation, - - 342 

Seot. II. in Syntax, - . , 345 

Sect. III. — in Idiom, - - - 349 



CONTENTS. 



Sect. IV. Difficulties in Phrases^ - - - 355 

Sect. Y. arising from the Grammatical 

Figures, - - - 357 

Sect. VI. : arising from the Rhetorical Figures, 360 



CHAPTER IV. 

DIFFICULTIES IN THE CIRCUMSTANCES RELATING TO THE 

BOOKS OF SCRIPTURE, - - - _ 366 

Sect. I. Difficulties in the Connexion of particular Parts, 366 

Sect. II* in Plan and Distribution^ - S74 

Sect. 111. in Scope and Design, - - 378 

Sect IV. — — . concerning the Occasion, - 379 

Sect. V. — concerning the Time, - - 380 

Sect. VI. concerning the Authors, - 381 

Sect. VII. — - in different kinds of Composition, 382 



CHAPTER V. 

OF RECONCILING SCRIPTURE TO ITSELF, - - - 385 

Sect. I. Seeming Contradictions in ^uotHions - 385 

Sect. II. -« in Historical Passages, 392 

Sect. Ill, • between Predictions and 

their Jlccomplishment 400 

Sect. IV. — — in Points of Doctrine 401 

CHAPTER VI. 

SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS TO REASON AND MORALITY, 404 

Sect. I. Seeming Contradictions to Truth - - 404 

Sect. II. to Morality - - 408 

Seot. III. Passages unreasonably severe - - 414 



CONTENTS. XI 



CHAPTER VII. 



SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS TO HISTORY, AND MATTERS OF 

FACT, ---..- ^ 417 

Sect. I. Seeming Contradictions to Matters of Fact^ in 

the jy'.rrations of the Sacred Writers, - 417 

Sect. II. Seeming Contradictions in Occasional References, 422 
Sect. III. _— ^_ in Prophecies, - 423 



CHAPTER VIII. 



COMPLICATED DIFFICULTIES, - - - - 425 

Sect. I. Difficulties arising from different Various 

Readings, _ _ - , . 425 

Sect. II. Complicated Difficulties in the Sense, - 427 

Sect. HI. Difficulties both in Reading and in Sense, 429 

Sect. IV. Difficulties which admit different Solutions, 431 

CONCLUSION, - ^ - - ^ ^ 433 



INTRODUCTION. 



1. As the Christian religion is of divine authority, 
and as the Scriptures are the authentic record and rev- 
elation of it, every Christian, and especially every 
Christian teacher, is concerned to understand the Scrip- 
tures, and obliged to study them with care. 

2. The importance of understanding the Scriptures 
has never been denied, though the means of attaining 
to it have not always been sufficiently attended to, even 
in the schools of Theology. 

3. The Scriptures can be understood, only by being 
studied and interpreted according to the genuine prin- 
ciples of criticism ; and a regular deduction of these 
principles, illustrated by examples, seems to be the best 
method that can be taken for assisting students in the 
study of the Scriptures. 

4. It is from the Scripture, rightly understood, that 
all just opinions in religion are to be derived ; but mis- 
interpretation of it is the certain cause of error. 

1 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

5. This part of our course may be reduced to two 
general heads ; — the Sources — and the Objects — of 
Scripture Criticism. The consideration of the former 
will lead us to discover the most general and simple 
principles ; the consideration of the latter will enable 
us to combine these principles, to deduce from them 
more particular rules, and to apply them to use. 



PART I. 



THE SOURCES OF SCRIPTURE CRITICISM. 

6. The sources of Scripture criticism are reducible 
to the following ; manuscripts and editions ; the ori- 
ginal languages ; the kindred languages ; versions ; 
the occasion, scope, and other circumstances of the 
books of Scripture ; comparison of scripture with itself; 
ancient history and manners ; ancient learning and 
opinions. 

7. These are subservient to Scripture criticism, 
either by establishing the true readings, by ascertaining 
the sense, or by displaying the beauties of the Scrip- 
ture language. 



CHAP. I 

Manuscripts and Editions of the Books of Scripture, 

8. The first thing necessary for understanding the 
Scripture, is, to know what the authors really wrote. 



4 MSS. AND EDITIONS. 

9. We cannot determine this by having recourse to 
their autographa, because all these are long ago lost. 

Simon, Hist. Crit. N. T. c. 29. PfafF. de gen. lect. N. T. c. 2. 
§ 7. Michaelis Introd. Lect. § 12. 

10. There are many MSS. which have been tran- 
scribed from these or from other MSS. and many edi- 
tions published from MSS. ; w^hich are therefore the 
sources to w^hich we must apply for discovering what 
the inspired authors wrote. * 

Simon, ib. Michaelis, § 13. 

11. It is, chiefly, to the common editions of the 
books of Scripture that the generality can have recourse 
for this purpose ; and these are sufficient for what is 
absolutely necessary to be known. 

Kennicott, Diss. General. § 7. 

12. But, as these editions differ in some places from 
one another, and MSS. differ much more, we cannot 
be certain what was originally written, but by a care- 
ful examination and comparison of the several MSS. 
and editions ; and therefore it is of great utility that 
such as have the opportunity, consult these, and com- 
municate their discoveries to the world. 

Ken. ib. § 8 — 14. De Rossi, Var. Lect. Prol. 



AUTHORITY OF MSS. 



SECT. I. 

The Authority of Manuscripts. 

13. There are catalogues of the known MSS. of 
the Scriptures, soane of which, or one collected from, 
them, it will be useful to have constantly at hand. 

Simon, Hist. Crit. V. T. 1. 1. c 21, 22, 23. Houbigant, Proleg. 
c. 3. a. 2. Kennicott, Diss. 2. and Diss. Gen. § 164. Mill. 
Prolegom. Wetstein, Proleg. Dupin, Prelim. Diss. Pfaff. 
ib. c. 4, 5. Michaelis, § 21—27. De Rossi, Var. Lect. Prol. 
Clavis. 

14. Of the New Testament, there are several very 

ancient MSS. ; but few MSS. of the Old Testament 

are of very great antiquity. 

Kennicott, Diss. 1. p. 305. Diss. 2. p. 465. Diss. Gen. § 49, 
50, 162, 163. 

15. The ages of MSS. are ascertained either by 
testimony, or by internal marks ; with greatest certain- 
ty by the latter ; not however by any one mark singly, 
but by the conjunction of several. 

Simon, Hist. V. T. 1. 1. c. 22, 23. Houbigant, Prol. p. 195. 
Kennicott, Diss. 1. p. 309, 312, 313. Pfaff. c. 3. § 1,2. 
Wetstein, Prol. c. 1. § 4, 11, 17. c. 2. c. 3. c. 4. c. 5. Michaelis, 
§ 21, 22. De Rossi, ib. 

16. The authority of a MS. depends very much on 
its antiquity ; and, consequently, it is of importance to 
ascertain the ages of MSS. as exactly as possible. 

17. The principle on which antiquity gives author- 
ity to a MS. is, that the risk of falling into mistakes 
increases in proportion to the frequency of* transcrib- 



b AUTHORITY OF MSS. 

ing ; and therefore, other things being equal, the au- 
thority of a MS. is in proportion to its antiquity. 

Wetstein, Proleg. c. 16. Kennicott, Diss. 2. p. 467. Walton, 
Proleg. 6. § 6. De Rossi, ib. can. 13—16. 

18. But, from that very principle, there arises an 
exception to this general rule ; viz. that a MS. certain- 
ly copied from one very ancient, has greater authority 
than another written earlier, but copied from a MS. of 
no great antiquity. 

Houbigant, Proleg. p. 105, 106. Kennicott, Diss. 1. p. 307. De 
Rossi, ib. can. 19 — 23. 

19. But, there are other circumstances, besides their 
ages, which likewise affect the authority of MSS. 

20. MSS. of the Hebrew bible are of greater or less 
authority, according to the countries in which they 
were written, and the persons for w^hose use they w^ere 
written. 

Simon, V. T. I. 1. c. 21, 22. Houbigant, Prol. p. 107. Kenni- 
cott, Diss. 1 , p. 313. De Rossi, ib. can. 24 — 30. 

21. Some MSS. show themselves to have been writ- 
ten by persons ignorant of the language ; and, on this 
very account, have great authority in favour of readings 
which could not have been introduced without knowl- 
edge of the language. 

Pfaff. c. 3. § 4. Michaelis, § 88. Marsh's Michaelis, ch. 8. 

22. Some MSS. bear plain marks of being written 
with care, and therefore have great authority ; others, 
of being written negligently, and these can claim no 
authority. 

Simon, N. T. c. 30. Michaelis, § 28, Walton, ib. Marsh's 
Michaelis, ib. De Rossi, ib. 



USE OF MSS* 7 

23. MSS. which have been designedly rendered 
conformable to a particular copy or version, of which 
there are many instances, have no authority in cases 
wherein they agree with that copy or version. 

Simon, N. T. c. 30, 31. Mill, Prol. N° 1268, &c. Wetstein, 
Prol. c. 4. § 1. Michaelis, § 21, 22, 28. Marsh's Michaelis, 
ib. De Rossi, ib. 

24. A MS. transcribed from another, or MSS. trans- 
cribed from the same original, or corrected by it, can 
have no separate or independent authority. 

Simon, N. T. c. 31. Wetstein, Prol. c. 4. § 3. Michaelis, § 28. 
Marsh's Michaelis, ib. § 3. De Rossi, ib. 

25. MSS. written since the invention of printing, 

and copied from any printed edition, have no authority. 

Kennicott, Diss. 1. p. 305. Wetstein, Prol. c. 2. § 8. Michae- 
lis, § 20. Marsh's Michaelis, ib. 



SECT II. 

The Use of Manuscripts, and the Manner of using 
them* 

26. The first and principal use of MSS. is to show 
us all the different readings which have taken place, 
that we may be able to compare them, and to choose 
that which is best supported. 

Kennicott, Diss, passim. 

27. If other considerations be equal, that reading is 
to be preferred, which is found in the most ancient 

MSS. 

Pfaff, c. 12.can. 1. Walton, ib. 



8 USE OP MSS. 

28. If other circumstances be equal, the reading of 
the greater number of MSS. is to be preferred to that 
of a less number. It is on this principle, that most of 
the received readings have been preferred. 

Pfaff, ib. Wetstein, c. 16. § 18. Michaelis, § 28. Walton, ib. 

29. Great regard is to be paid to a reading found in 
a MS. which is evidently written with accuracy. 

30. In judging of the number of MSS. which sup- 
port a reading, care must be taken, not to reckon for 
different MSS. one which has been called by different 
names. 

Wetstein, c. 1, § 18. c. 4. § 1. 

31. It is necessary to know with respect to every 
MS. whether it contains the whole of the Old, or of 
the New Testament, or only a part of them, and what 
part ; and whether it be complete or defective, and 
what its defects are. 

Mill, Prol. N° 1156. Wetstein, c. 1. § 12, 13, 16. c. 4. § 3. 
Marsh's Michaelis, ib. § 4. 

32. Besides the principal use which has been men- 
tioned, MSS. answer indirectly several purposes subor- 
dinate to that; particularly by indicating, in many 
ways, the occasions of mistakes, and thus leading us to 
correct both these and similar mistakes. 

S3, MSS. shew us the various forms of the charac- 
ters used in different ages, and thus enable us to judge 
which of them were liable to be confounded. 

Houbigant, Proleg. Kennicott, Diss. 1. p. 313. Simon, V. T. 
1. 1. c. 23. Wetst. Prol. c. 1. § 4, 5, 7. c. 2, 3, 4, 5. 



AUTHORITY OF MSS. y 

34. From MSS. we learn what abbreviations have 
been at any time used ; and by knowing this, we are 
enabled to account for the introduction of many vari- 
ous readings. 

Kennicott, Diss. Gen. § S5, 26. Wetst. c. 1. § 7. Michaelis, 
§ 22. Isa. li. 4. Lowth in loco. 

S5, From MSS. it appears that, both in the Hebrew 
and in the Greek Scriptures, numbers were expressed, 
not only in words at length, but also by single numeral 
letters, and by figures ; by which many corruptions 
have naturally been occasioned. 

Kennicott. Diss. 1. and 2. Diss. Gen. § 27. 

36, MSS. are often written with bladk rules, which 
by confounding letters otherwise easily distinguishable, 
lead readers to mistake one of them for the other. 

3, n. Isa. liii. 10. ^Snn "he hath put him to grief." ^Snil 
" with grief." Vulg. Lowth in 1. Jer. xxviii. 8. 
Ken. Diss. Gen. § 54, 122, 179. p 83. note, p. 87. note. 

n, a. Isa. vi. 13. Lowth in 1. vii. 16. Ken. ib. c. 523. 

n, li. Id. Diss. I. 2 Sam. v. 1. comp. 1 Chron. xi. 1. 

D, 2), 2 Sam. xxviii. 26. comp. 1 Chron. xi. 27. Ken. Diss. 1. 

D, "J. 1 Sam- xvii. 32. comp. 70. 

J, n. Josh. vii. 18, &c. comp. 70. Vat, and v. 26, and 1 Chron. 
ii. 7. 

37. MSS. were generally written in continued lines, 

without either punctuation or any breaks between 

words or sentences ; by which means, letters may be 

readily taken from one word to another, and words from 

one clause or sentence to another. 

Houbigant, Prol. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 313, &c. Simon, N. T. c. 
63. Wetst. c. 1. § 5, 10. 

2 



*10 AUtHORITY OF EDITIONS. 

38. MSS. were often written on rolls, by misplacing 
which, mistakes may readily have been introduced. 

Ken. Remarks on select passages in the Old Testament. 

39. MSS. show the different orders in which the 
books of Scripture have at different times been placed ; 
and, by so doing, may account for some appearances, 
or remove some difficulties. 

40. MSS. discover the groundlessness of many con- 
jectures concerning the occasions of various readings 
w^hich have been formed by learned men not much 
conversant with MSS. 

Mill. Prol. No. 1367 Wetst Prol. c, 1. § 7. 

41. Hebrew MSS. are often written without vowel 
points ; and some of them retain many of the vowel 
letters, which are omitted in later MSS, and in the 
printed editions. 

Simon, V. T. l. 1. c. 22. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 313. 

42. Greek MSS. are generallj^ written without ac- 
cents, spirits, or the iota subscriptum. 

Simon, N. T. c. 33. Wetst. c. 1. § 5. 



SECT. III. 

The Authority of the printed Editions, 

43. All the printed editions of the Scriptures, how- 
ever many, are derived from a very few original and 
independent editions ; the authority, therefore, of all 
the printed editions resolves itself into the authority of 
these few ; and, in like manner, the authority of each 



AUTHORITY OF EDITIONS. 11 

of these few resolves itself into that of the particular 
MSS. from which it was printed. 

44. Of the Old Testament, there are only two edi- 
tions which can be considered as original ; for though 
there were some prior to both, they have been very 
rare, and little known. 

45. The first is that of R. Ben Chaim ; and from it 
all the ordinary printed editions are in general derived ; 
and, consequently, the authority of them all is resolv- 
able into that of the MSS. from which his edition was 
taken ; which, having been all corrected according to 
the Masora, as well as very late, are entitled to little 
more than the authority of a single MS. and that of no 
great antiquity. 

Simon, Catalog. Edit. Bibl. Houbigant Prol. c. 3. a. 2. Ken. 
Diss. 1. p. 287, 548. Diss. 2. p. 470. Diss. Gen. § 60. Walton, 
Prsef. & Prol. 4. 

46. Therefore, also, the printed editions have, all 
together, little more than the authority of one MS. and 
less authority than one MS. more ancient than those 
from which they were taken ; but, of more ancient 
MSS. than these, there are many still extant. 

Ken. ib. 

47. The other original edition of the Old Testa- 
ment, is the Complutensian Bible, it having been in 
the press at the same time with the former ; but it too 
was taken from MSS. corrected by the Masora. 

Ken. ib. & Diss. Gen. § 60. Walton, Prgef. & Prol. 3. § 14. 

48. Consequently, where these two editions agree, 



12 AUTHORITY OF EDITIONS, 

their authority is not much greater than if they had 
been printed from the same MS. 
Ken. ib. 

49. There are some variations between them ; and 
these are to be judged of, according to the authority of 
the IVlSS. from which they were respectively taken, or 
by the examination of other MSS. 

50. Still therefore it holds true, that the concurrence 
of the printed editions of the Old Testament has no 
great force for establishing a disputed reading, in op- 
position to evidence against it. 

61. Of the New Testament, there are four capital 
editions, in some measure original and independent, 
from one or other of which all the rest are derived, and 
into the authority of which, that of them all, conse- 
quently, resolves itself. 

Mill. Prol. No. 1C88, &c. Wetst Prol. c. 10, 11, 12, 13, 16. 
Michael. § S3, 34. 

52. The Complutensian, which is the first of these, 
is thought by some to have been carefully taken from 
a great number of MSS. and to have chiefly followed 
one very ancient ; and by these persons its authority is 
highly extolled. 

Mill. ib. Walton, Prol. 4. § 14, 15. 

53, Others affirm that it was taken from MSS. of 
the 14th and following centuries, and, in several in- 
stances accommodated to the Latin version ; and conse- 
quently that it ought to have very little authority. 

Wetst. ib. 



AUTHORITY OF EDITIONS. 13 

64. Till this question be determined with sufficient 
evidence, that edition ought to be followed with cau- 
tion. 

Ma'-sh's Michael, ch. 12. § 1. 

55, The second is Erasmus's, who took his first 
edition from only three MSS. of the Gospels, and one 
MS. of the other books ; and in his subsequent edi- 
tions, employed a few more MSS. and made some 
alterations according to the Complutensian. The 
readings of his edition, therefore, stand on the authority 
of a very few MSS. 

Jid. ib. Mill. ib. No. 1116--1154. 

56. The next is that of Robert Stevens, who fol- 
lowed chiefly Erasmus's last edition, but used along 
with it, the Complutensian, and fifteen MSS., but some 
of them only small fragments, and few of them very 
ancient ; so that the authority of his edition resolves 
itself, partly into the authority of the two former edi- 
tions, and partly into that of his fifteen MSS. 

Jid. ib. Mill. ib. No. 1155-— 1187. 1220—1235. 

57. The fourth is Beza's, who took his edition 
chiefly from Stevens's third impression, with one MS. 
of the Gospels, and one of the Epistles, and often pre- 
ferred readings supported by a single or dubious au- 
thority. Where his edition, therefore, differs from 
others, it has little weight. It is from his, that the 
common editions are taken. 

Jid. ib. Mill. ib. No. 12o8— 1293. 

58. It follows, that the readings found in all the 
printed editions of the New Testament, rest on the 



14 NECESSITY OP CORRECTING EDITIONS. 

authority of a few MSS. not always the most ancient ; 
and, consequently, the concurrence of these editions 
cannot confer great authority on the readings adopted 
by them in opposition to others which appear to be 
well supported. 



SECT. IV. 

The Necessity of Correcting the printed Editions by 
Manuscripts, 

59. That there are many various readings in the 
copies of the New Testament, aod that it is highly 
useful to examine them, has for a long time been gen- 
erally confessed ; and they indeed supply the means of 
rendering the text of that part of Scripture in a very 
great degree correct. 

Walton, Prol. 6. § 1. 

60. But an opinion, however ill-founded, has been 
generally received, the few who ventured to oppose it 
having been till lately discountenanced and borne down, 
that the Old Testament, as printed in Hebrew, is ab- 
solutely correct ; and the prevalence of this opinion has 
prevented many from employing any care in examining 
the text of the Old Testament. 

Walton, Prol. 7. 

61. In support of that opinion, is urged the great 
care and accuracy of the Jews, in transcribing their 
Scriptures. But, as no care is sufficient, without a 
perpetual miracle, for preventing every mistake in 



NECESSITY OF CORRECTING EDITIONS. 15 

transcribing, so, by every kind of evidence of which 
the matter is capable, it appears that they have actually 
committed mistakes very often in their copies of the 
Old Testament. 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. 235, 579, 351, 371, 411. Diss. 2. p. 315, 40^, 
441, &c. 260, 273, 274, 278. Diss. Gen. § 23. 

62. It is, however, insisted, that, when transcribers 
made any small mistake, it was immediately corrected 
by the Jewish Doctors, so that no mistakes now re- 
main in any of the copies. But, though these Doc- 
tors did several times review and correct the copies of 
the Old Testament, this could not be effectual for re- 
moving every mistake ; nor did one review, even in 
their own judgment, render other reviews unneces- 
sary. 

Ken. Diss. 2. p. 444. Diss. Gen § 32—43. 51--58. Houbig. 
Prol. c. 1. a. 2. Walton. Pro!. 8. § 18—29. 

63. But it is urged, that the Masora corrected all 
the mistakes which had crept in prior to it, and gave 
the means of detecting every subsequent mistake. 
From the very nature of the Masora, however, it is 
clear, that it could not possibly answer either of these 
purposes ; and it is, in fact, very faulty and defective, 
and formed on late MSS. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 24, 25, 26. Houbig. Prol. c. 1. a. 3. Ken. 
Diss. 2. p. 262—291. Walton, Prol. 8. § 1—16. 

64. After the reception of the Masora, the Jews 
were very careful to correct their MSS. according to 
it ; but, it being faulty and inadequate to the purpose, 
this was far from being sufficient for rendering them 



16 NECESSITY OF CORRECTING EDITIONS^. 

free from errors ; and, in fact, there are readings in 
the text, as corrected by it, and printed, which are 
evidently wrong. 

Houbig. Prol. c. 2. a. 2. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 97, 343, 438, 446, 

472, 528, 535. Diss. 2. p. 314, 356. 
Deut. X. 6. " Aaron died in Mosera.^^ Contradicted by Num. 
XX. 22. xxxiii. 38. " in Hor."^^ Samaritan. 
Ken. in loc. Diss. 2. p. 314. Diss. Gen. § 18, 165. 
2 Sam. xxiv. 13. " Seven years of famine ;" inconsistent with 
1 Chron. xxi. 12. " Three years ;" which is probably right. 
Uniformity. 70. T for J. 
Ken. Diss. 1. p. 472. Diss. Gen. § 167. 
2 Chron. xxii. 2. " Forty and two years old was Ahaziah ;" 
contradicted by 2 Kings viii. 26. "Two and twenty ;^^ and 
by 2 Chron, xxi. 20. his father Jehoram only foi'ty. Vers, a 
for \ 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. 97, 528, 535. Diss, 2. p. 356. 
Josh. xxi. 36, 37. omirted, yet genuine. Context, vers. Aff, 
MSS. If Edit. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 22. Houbig. in loc. Ken. in loc. 
Diss. 1. p. 440, 552. Diss. 2 p. 285, 330, 390, 459, 464, 
485, 487, 571. Diss. Gen. § 25, 43, 55, 56, 60, 61, 80, 98, 
123, 125,179. 

66. The practice of correcting MSS. according to 
the Masora produced a very great degree of unifor- 
mity ; it was confidently asserted that the uniformity 
was perfect ; and, for a long time, by reason of the 
want of access to a variety of ancient MSS., the asser- 
tion could not be directly disproved, and was very gen- 
erally believed. But since MSS. were examined, it 
appears with the fullest evidence, that they actually do 
coAtain very many variations from the Masoretic text ; 
the oldest MSS. most ; but even late ones several ; and 
these often preferable to the received readings ; and 
often unquestionably the genuine readings. 



NECESSITY OF CORRECTING EDITIONS. l7 

Houbigant, Prol. c. 1. a. 2. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 290, 297. et pas- 
sim. Diss. 2. p. 286. 445, 459. Gen. xliv. 24. « We came 
up unto my father ;" " our father." 2 MSS. Sam* Vers. 

Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 48. 

1 Sam. xvii. 34. " A lion anil a bear took (ht) him out of the 
flock." nty "a lamb." Keri. All MSS. Vers. 

Ken. ibid, and § 39. 

Isa. xxxvi. 5. " / say, I have counsel" -mDN, absurd. nifDN 
" thou sajest." 16 MSS. Syr. 2 Kings, xviii. 20. Eng. 
supplies it, but improperly retaining also the other reading. 

Lowth et Ken. in loc. * 

66. The printed editions of the Hebrew text of the 
Old Testament, and those of the Greek of the New 
Testament are, therefore, precisely on the same foot- 
ing ; and the following principles may be justly held 
with respect to both. 

Walton Prol. 6. 

67. There has not hitherto been so great care em- 
ployed on any edition of the Scriptures, as to render 
the readings sacred which are adopted in it, or to su- 
persede the necessity of examining them by MSS. 

68. A reading is not rendered even suspicious, merely 
on account of its not being found in the common edi- 
tions of the Bible. 

69. A reading ought not to be rejected as false 
for its not being found in any printed edition of the 
Bible. 

70. So far is there from being reason for adhering 
tenaciously to the printed text, that it ought to be de- 
parted from without scruple, whenever another reading 
found in MSS. is clearly preferable. 



4^. 



18 THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 

71. A much more correct edition of the Scriptures 
than any extant, may be obtained, and would be very 
desirable. 



SECTION V. 

The Samaritan Pentateuch, 

p 72. For ascertaining the true reading in the books 
of Moses we have a peculiar instrument, the Samari- 
tan Pentateuch, which was little known by Christians 
till the 17th century; which was then printed from 
one MS. ; but of which several MSS. have been since 
examined by learned men. 

Walton, Prol. 11. § 10. Simon, V. T. I. i. c. 12. Houbigant, 
Prol. c. 3. Ken. Diss. 2. c. 1. Diss. Gen. cod. 61 — 66. 
Brett, Diss, on ancient versions. 

73. It is not a version, but the original law itself, 
written in a character different from the Hebrew. 

Jid. 

74. It was not translated from the Greek version, 
nor copied from Hebrew books after the time of Ezra ; 
but was among the ten tribes when they separated from 
Judah ; and, from the copies then among them, it has 
been successively transcribed. 

Houbigant, ibid. a. 1. § 1. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 110, 130, &c. 
Walton, Prol. 11. § 11, 12. 

75. The Samaritan, and the Hebrew, are two inde- 
pendent copies of the original text, preserved by nations 
who hated one another, and held no intercourse to- 



THE SAMAllITAN PENTATEUCH. 



19 



gether ; yet they agree in general. This is a strong 
confirmation of the authenticity and integrity of that 
part of Scripture which they contain. 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. 339. Diss. 2. Walton, ib. § 16, 17, 18. 
Brett, ib. 

76. So far as the Samaritan copy is preservedi cor- 
rect, it shews what readings took place in the time of 
Rehoboam. 

77. It differs, in many places, from the present He 
brew, and that, by all the several sorts of variations. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. U. Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. 1. § 1, 2. ^Val- 
ton, Prol. ll.§ 15. [N^ 81.] 

78. All these differences have been made objections 
against its authority, because it has been taken for 
granted, that it must be wrong, wherever it is not con- 
formable to the Hebrew ; but as this goes on the false 
supposition of the absolute integrity of the Masoretic 
copies, it cannot reasonably be admitted, 

Houbig. ib. § 1. &c. Walton, Pro!. 11. 

79. The wilful corruption charged upon it, of 
changing Ebal into Gerizzim, Deut. xxvii. 4. is the 
only thing that could justly affect its authority ; but 
even this could destroy that authority in all cases ; 
and, on a careful examination, it appears highly pro- 
bable, from many topics, and even from the conte;xt 
of the Hebrew itself, that what has almost universally 
been reckoned a wilful corruption in it, is the genuine 
reading, and that the corruption is to be charged on 
the Jews. 

Houbig. Prol. p. TS. Ken. Diss, 2. c. 1. Walton, Prol. 11. 
§ 16. 



20 TBE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 

80. All the ether differences between the Samari- 
tan and the Hebrew copies, exhibit various readings ; 
with respect to which, neither copy should be preferred 
absolutely and in all cases ; but both copies carefully 
collated, and the genuine text selected, partly from the 
one, and partly from the other. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 10, 12. Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. 1. § 2. 

81. The Samaritan seems to be, and, on several ac- 
counts, may naturally be expected to be, preserved 
more correct than the Hebrew; and therefore will 
supply many emendations or preferable readings. 

Simon, V. T. 1. i. c. 12. Houbig. ib. § 3. Ken. Diss. 2. Gen. 

iv. 8. " Cain said unto Abel his brother, and it 

came to pass when they were in the field," defective, piska^ 
all Heb. MSS. and edit. Sam. " Let us go into the field." 
70. Sjr. Vulg. Targums. Aquila. Philo. 
Ken. Diss. 1. p. 347, &c. Diss. p. 351, 364. Diss. Gen. et 
in loc. Houbig. Prol. et in loc. 

Exod. xxxii. 32. " If thou wilt forgive their sin, — and if not, 

blot me out of thy book,"' defective, all Heb. MSS. and edit. 

Sam. iiW, " forgive it." 70. 

Houbig. in loc. Ken. in loc. et Diss. 
Exod. xiv. 1 2. " Is not this the word that we did tell thee in 

Egypt, saying," &c. Not recorded in Heb. but in Sam. alter 

Exod. vi. 9. 

Jid. 
Deut. xxvii. 2, 3. " All the words of this law." What law ? 
defined neither here, nor at the execution of it. Josh. viii. 
32. — various opinions — ascertained to be the decalogue, by 
addition in Sam. after Exod. xx. 17. explicitly enjoining it to 
be thus written. 

Houbig. in loc. Ken. ib. et Diss. 2. p. 83, &c. 
Exod, ii. 2K " Moses swore, b^vn" Heb. — an oath unnecessa- 



THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 2l 

• ry. Sam. Snm, « consented." Chald. Syr. Eng. lb. " He gave 

Moses Zipporah." Sam. adds TWifvh " to wife." 
Gen. xxxvi. 16. « Duke Korafi." Heb. Chald. 70. Vul. Arab. 
Syr. Wanting in Sam. An interpolation — context, v. 11, 12. 
and, 5, 14, 18. I Chron. i. 36. 

Houbig. in loc. Ken. ib. et Diss. 1. p. S76, 

Gen. iii. 12. " The woman he gave me, Kin." Heb Sam. " She^^* 

jt'n — above 20MSS. — sense — often elsewhere. 

Houbig. Prol p. 49, et in loc. Ken. in loc. Diss. i. p 343. 
Gen. xxvi. 18. " Isaac digged again the wells of water which 
*D'i nan they had digged in the days of Abraham." — no nom- 
inative. Sam. " Which naj; the servants of Abraham had 
digged." 70. Vulg. Syr. 
Houbig. in loc. Ken. ib. et Diss. l.p. 359. 
Num. xxiv. 20. " Amalek was the first of the nations, and his 
posterity n^X njr," literally, « to the destroyer." — obscure. 
Sam. n^K' 1]; " until it perish." 
Houbig. Prol. et in loc. Ken. ib. 
Gen. ii. 4. " In the day that the Lord God made the earth and 
heavens.''^ Heb. — Sam. " The heavens and the earth." — com- 
mon order. 
Houbig. and Ken. in loc. 

Gen. xii. 16. Abraham "had he-asses, and men-servants, and 
maid -servants, and she-asses, and camels." Sam. "Men- 
servants, and maid-servants, and he-asses, and she-asses, and 
camels." 
Ken. in loc. Houbig. ib. et Prol. p. 72. 

82. The Samaritan Pentateuch agrees with the most 
ancient Hebrew MSS. in some places where it differs 
fro^ the printed text. 

[Gen. iii. 12. N^' 81.] 

83. It agrees remarkably with the version of the 70; 
and thus shews that very few variations had crept into 
the copies of the Hebrew, between the time of the 



22 THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 

defection of the ten tribes and the making of fhat 
version. ♦ 

84. In some instances, it does differ from the 70 
version ; and wherever, in these instances, it preserves 
the genuine reading, it shews, either that corruptions 
had crept into the Hebrew copies during that interval, 
or that that version has undergone changes ; and maj 
thus be the means of correcting errors which could not 
be otherwise corrected. 

Ken. Diss. 2. Diss. Gen. § 18. 

Exod. vii. — xi. In the Hebrew, the messages given by God, 
are recorded but once, generally as delivered by him to Mo- 
ses; but once, ch. xi. 4. &c. only as delivered by Moses to 
Pharaoh. — Sam. All of them are recorded twice, as deliv- 
ered by God to Moses, and then again as delivered by him 
to Pharaoh. This agreeable to ancient usage — a propriety 
in recording the execution of the divine commissions — pre- 
serves regularity throughout — probable that the omission was 
made by the authors of the 70 version. 
Ken.Diss. 1. p. S80. Diss. 2. p. 307. 
Diss. Gen. § 24. [Deut. x. 6. No. 64.] 

85. The Samaritan Pentateuch sometimes agrees 
with the Hebrew copies, in readings which, notwith- 
standing their concurrence, appear by other means to 
be faulty ; which proceeds, either from some mistakes 
having crept into the copies before the defection of the 
ten tribes, or from the Samaritans having, in these 
places, supplied defect in their copies from some He- 
brew MSS. 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. 365, 434, &c. Diss. Gen. § 84. 4, 5, 121. 
Deut. xxi. 23. " He that is hanged is accursed of God^" — 
Heb. Sam. 70. But the apostle quotes it Gal. iii. 13. 



THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 23 

" Cursed is every one that hangeth on a tree." — Syr. God 
probably added to the Heb. and 70 by the Jews, out of ha- 
tred to the Christians, and to the Sam. perhaps by Sym- 
machus. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. § 81, 84, 4, 85. 
Deut. xxxii. 43. " Praise his people, ye nations." Heb. Sam. 
But quoted Rom. xv. 10. " Rejoice, ye Gentiles, with his 
people." — 70. Eng. — nx or Dj? omittef'. 

Ken. ib. § 81, 84, 5, 108. c. 507. p. 82. note. 

86. There being several MSS. of the Samaritan 
Pentateuch known, and their variations pointed out, 
its genuine readings can be better ascertained, and 
more successfully applied to the correction of the He- 
brew copies, than at its first publication. 



24 THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 



CHAP. IL 



The Original Languages. 

87. For explaining the Scriptures, some knowledge 
of the original languages in which they were written, 
is absolutely necessary ; as without it, whatever sense 
a person puts upon them, must be taken wholly on the 
authority of others. 

88. To be reduced to this necessity, is shameful in 
the teachers of religion; and, therefore to neglect the 
study of these languages, is also in them inexcusable. 

89. Criticism presupposes the grammar of the par- 
ticular languages ; and is employed in applying the 
principles there laid down, to their proper use. 

90. The languages in which the Scriptures are writ- 
ten, are the Hebrew and the Greek ; on them it there- 
fore is, that Scripture criticism must be exercised. 



SECT. L 

The Origin of the Hebrew Language^ and of the 
Greek, 

91. Some have ascribed the invention of language, 
wholly to the natural powers of men ;^ others, wholly 
to a divine instruction.^ Most probably, the first lan- 
guage was formed by Adam and Eve for themselves, 



ORIGIN OF THE HEBREW. 26 

by the use of their own powers, but supernaturallj as- 
sisted.^ 

^ Diod. Sicul. 1. i. Lactant. de cultu. 1. 10. Greg. Njss. cont. 
Eunom. or. 12. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 14, 15. 

2 The Jews in general. Plato. Cratyl. Koran, c. 2. Bux- 
torfde ling. Heb. orig. Blair on Rhetor. L. 6. Walton, 
Prol.l.§4. 

3 Universal History, b. 1. c. 2. s. 5. 

92. From our supposing the primitive language to 
have been formed not without divine assistance, or even 
from its having been immediately of divine original, it 
cannot be concluded, that it must have possessed an 
uncommon degree of perfection ; for still, the wisdom 
of God would adapt it to the necessities of mankind at 
that period, and to the use which their unimproved fa- 
culties could make of it ; and consequently, it is natu- 
ral to think that it was narrow and unpolished. 

Univ. Hist. ib. Blair, ib. 

93. Adam and his posterity continued to use the 
primitive language, only making some additions to it, 
as their occasions from time to time required. On ac- 
count of the longevity of men, and their not being very 
numerous, nor widely scattered, that language probably 
remained with little variation, till the deluge ; and the 
same language would, of course, be spoken by the fam- 
ily of Noah, for some space of time. 

Univ. Hist, ib Simon, ib. Walton, Pi^ol. 1. § 6. 

94. This uniformity of language was broken by the 
dispersion of mankind at Babel ; and when, in conse- 
quence of that event, the different tribes were formed 
into distinct nations^ they would naturally run into 



26 ORIGIN OF THE HEBREW AND THE GREEK. 

different dialects, which would, in course of time, be- 
come more and more different from one another. 

Gen. xi. 6, &c. Cleric, in loc. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 14. 
Scaliger, Exercit. in Cardan. Is, Casaubon, Diatrib. de ling. 
Heb. M. Casaubon de 4 ling. Wotton concerning the Con- 
fusion of Languages. Brett*s Essay on the same. Buxt. de 
ling. Heb. confusione. Walton, ib. § 6, 7. 

95. Some have thought that the primitive language 
is wholly lost ; others, that it still exists, and that the 
Hebrew is that language. The truth seems to be, that 
in one sense it is lost, all the languages now known 
differing from it in many respects ; but in another sense 
it still exists, to wit, in the several dialects derived from 
it, all which retain something of it. 

Greg. Njss. ib. Simon, ib. c. 14. Grot, in Gen. xi. 1. 

96. Of these dialects, that may most properly be 
reckoned the primitive language, which has deviated 
least from it : And, though claims have been urged in 
favour of many languages, particularly, of all the Ori- 
ental tongues, this character is shewn, by many plaus- 
ible arguments, to belong to the Hebrew, in preference 
to all others. 

Theodoret. qu. 51. in Gen. Pocock. Pref. in Tograi. Buxt. 
ib. Chysost. honi. SO. in Gen. xi. August, de Civ. Dei. L 
17. c. 11. Ilieron. Comment, in Sophon. Origen, horn. 11. 
iri Num. Selden de Synedr. 1. 2. c. 9. Bochart, Phaleg. 1. 
1. c. 15. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 14, 15. Schultens, Orat. de 
ling. Arab. Walton, Prol. 3. § 1—22. 

97. The Hebrew language was not confined to the 
Israelites alone, nor even to the descendants of Abra- 
ham or of Shem : but was the same with that of the 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 27 

Phenicians and Cannaanites, who were of the posteri- 
ty of Ham. 
Simon, ib. 

98. The Greek language was ultimately derived 
from the same source, having taken its rise from some 
of the Oriental dialects used by the colonies which 
peopled Greece ; but, by reason of the situation of those 
that used it, their progress in arts and sciences, and 
their care in refining and improving it, it underwent so 
great alterations as to become, in time, a very dissimi- 
lar language. 

Squire's Inquiry into the origin of the Greek Language. Ogerii 
Greeca et LatinaLing. Hebraizantes. Monboddo's Origin of 
Lang. p. 1. b. 3. c. 11, 12. & p. £. diss. L 



SECT. IL 

Of Written Language, particularly the Hebreiv and 
the Greek, 

99. Men could not fail soon to become desirous of 
expressing their thoughts by visible marks, as well as 
by sounds. 

100. The first method which they fell upon for tliis 
purpose was, probably, the fixing upon marks to de- 
note particular things ; and these would be, in the be- 
ginning, a rude picture of the thing ; but would, after- 
wards, be simplified for the sake of expedition. Of 
marks in this stage, the Chinese characters appear to 
be an ilistance. 

Warburton, Div. Leg. Blair on Rhetor. L. 7. Walton, Prol. 
2. § 13, 20, 21. 



28 writt:en language. 

101. By most nations, these marks of things were 
laid aside, as soon as they had invented or learned a 
more commodious method of writing, namely by an 
alphabet ; but, the Egyptians retained it along with this 
other method, and improved it to a great degree of re- 
finement in their hieroglyphical writing, which they 
appropriated to particular purposes, especially those in 
respect of which they studied secrecy. 

Warburton, ib. Blair, ib. Walton, ib. § 17, 18, 19. 

102. The Egyptian hieroglyphics being in high 
estimation, the symbols employed in them probably 
gave occasion to some of the common metaphors of the 
East; and, if such metaphors are found in Scripture, 
the knowledge of these symbols will serve for deter- 
mining their meaning. 

Warburton, ib. 

Num. xxiv. 1 7. " There shall come a star out of Jacob, and a 

sceptre shall rise out of Israel." Hierogl. "a god — a 

king." 

103. The invention of alphabetical writing has al- 
ways been, with reason, considered as a very great 
effort of human genius. Whether it was wholly owing 
to that, or partly also to a divine original ? who was 
the author of it ? whether Adam, or Abraham, or Mo- 
ses, or the Assyrians, or the Phenicians, or the Egyp- 
tians ? — are questions which have been moved, but 
which cannot, perhaps, be answered with any degree 
of certainty. 

Walton, Prol. 2. § 1—7. Blair, ib. L. 7. t 



WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 29 

104. It is certain, however J that Moses was ac- 
quainted with alphabetical writing, and used it in the 
Pentateuch. 

Blair, ib. 

105. It has been made a question. What were the 
original Hebrew characters ? Sonae contend that they 
were the same with the present ; others maintain, and 
perhaps with better reason, that these are properly the 
Chaldean characters, which the Jews had learned dur- 
ing their captivity at Babylon, and used ever since ; 
and, that their ancient characters, in which the Scrip- 
tures were originally written, were the Phenician, or 
what are now called the Samaritan, at least very little 
different from them. 

Rabbins in general. Buxt. Lightfoot in Mat. iv. Schultens. 
Robertson, Gram. Heb. Append. 1. Hieronym. Morinus. 
CapelluG. Bochart, Phaleg. Walton, Prol. 2. § 8. and 3. 
§ 29-— 37. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 13. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 146, 
&c. Wilson's Heb. Gram. 

106. The Phenicians used the same characters with 
Moses and the ancient Hebrews ; and Cadmus carried 
thence the Alphabet with him into Greece, where 
their most ancient letters very much resembled the Sa- 
maritan, and bore plain marks of being derived from 
them, though they have been gradually altered till they 
came to their present form. 

W\alton, Prol. 2. § 4, 6, 9, &c. Ken. ib. Wilson, ib. Blair, ib. 



30 



HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 



SECT. III. 



Of the Hebreiv Vowel Points and Accents^ and the 
Greek Spirits and Accetits, 

107. The question that has been much agitated, con- 
cerning the antiquity and the authority of the present 
vowel points, is of considerable importance, with res- 
pect both to the understanding of the Hebrew lan- 
guage, and to the determining of the sense of Scrip- 
ture. 

108. The Jews agree that the reading and the sense 
jhxed by these points, is universally the genuine ; and 
their comriion opinion is, that they were first used by 
Ezra, and continued ever since ; but, some of them 
hold, that only the consonants were written, and the 
proper vowels handed down by oral tradition till about 
600 years after Christ, when they were first expressed 
in writing by the present marks. 

Elias Levita, Prgef. 3. in Mass. Ham. 

109. Among Christians, some maintain, that the 
vowel points, in their present figure; some, that at 
least marks equivalent to these, were always in use, 
and were affixed as they now stand by Ezra, and con- 
sequently are of divine authority, and everywhere 
determine the true reading and the true sense. Others 
think that they were, long after that time, invented 
or adopted by the Jewish critics, called the Masoretes; 
that therefore, they are merely of human authorny, 
have been often wrong placed, and give a false reading 



HEBREW VOWtL POINTS. 31 

and a false sense, which may be departed from, when- 
ever the analogy of the language, or the connexion, 
gives reason for doing so. 

Buxt. Tiberias. Buxt. de Antiq. punctorum. Leusden, 
Pliilol. Heb. Hottinger. Thes. Philol. Schultens, Instit. 
Gram. Heb. Robertson, Gram. Heb. Append. 2. and 3. 
Capell. arcan. punctual. Walton, Prol. 3. § 38 — 56. Simon, 
V. T 1. 1. c. 27. Prideaux, Connex. P. 1. b. 5. Masclef. 
Lowth's Isaiah, Prelim. Dissert, p. 54. Wilson, Heb. Gram. 
c. 1, 2. 

110. That the vowel points are modern, and of 
human invention, is argued from many topics : there 
are none such used to this day in the Samaritan Penta- 
teuch, nor were they anciently used in any other of the 
oriental languages. 

111. The copies of the Scriptures, used in the Jew- 
ish synagogues, are constantly written without points ; 
a practice which could never have been introduced, if 
they had been original to the language, or of divine 
authority. 

112. All the ancient various readings which have 
been marked by the Jews, regard only the letters, not 
one of them the vowel points ; which could not have 
happened, if these had been then in use. 

113. The ancient cabalists draw all their mysteries 
and allegories from the letters, none of them from the 
vowel points, which they could not have neglected if 
they had been acquainted with them, as they would 
have been copious sources of the conceits in which 
they delighted. 



32 HEBREW VOWEL POIN'fS. 

114. It appears, from the ancient versions, that they 
all read the text, in many places, differently from what 
it is now fixed to by the vowel points ; and therefore 
had it without them. 

115. There is no mention made of the vowel points 
by any of the ancient Jewish writers, though they had 
often the most natural occasions for it, if they had been 
acquainted with them ; lor the books Bahir and Zohar, 
alleged in opposition, have been proved not to be very 
ancient. 

116. Neither is there a hint of vowel points by any 
of the ancient Christian writers, for several centuries ; 
not even by Jerome, though he often takes notice of 
different pronunciations of Hebrew words ; but it is 
always only in reference to the letters. 

117. There seems to be sufficient evidence, that the 
present vowel points were introduced, probably in imi- 
tation of the Arabians, who had refined much on their 
own language, after the Hebrew had ceased to be a 
living tongue, in order to facilitate the reading of it ; 
and that they were graduallv brought to their present 
state, between the fifth and the tenth century. 

118. They who introduced them, no doubt intended 
them for expressing, as nearly as possible, the pronun- 
ciation of the Hebrew as then in use ; and often suc- 
cessfully ; but it had been so long a dead language, 
that they could not fail to be often mistaken ; and their 
system of punctuation renders letters, at one time, 
quiescent and useless, which, at other times, have a 



HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 3S 

variety of sounds, and produces great intricacy in the 
flexions of nouns and verbs. 

119. From supposing the vowel points modern, it 
will not follow that the Hebrew must have been a 
language consisting only of consonants, which would 
indeed be absurd ; for it is expressly maintained, that 
there are vowel letters in the Hebrew alphabet, J< a, 
1 u, ♦ 2, to which are now commonly added n ^, and 
i^ 0, by means of which that language might be read 
without points, almost as well as any other can ; and 
that these are really vowels, appears — from their being 
expressed as such, in most proper names, by the 70, — 
from the letters corresponding to them in place, being 
vowels in the Greek alphabet, which was borrowed 
from the Phenician, — and from the frequency of their 
recurrence, which is found to be just such as ought to 
belong to these vowels. 

120. Though there be many syllables, and even 
words, in which none of these letters (called Matres 
Jectionis) occur, and though, on that account, they 
seem insufficient for the pronunciation of the Hebrew ; 
yet they might have been sufficient when that was a 
living language, or even as long as it was preserved 
entire. They express all the long vowels ; and it may 
be, that the words in which none of them occur, had 
only short vowels, which it was not unnatural for a 
rude and simple language, like the Hebrew, to omit in 
M^iting, as being implied in enunciating the conso- 
nants. On the introduction of the vowel points, the 
vowel letters were omitted wherever they deemed to 
the introducers to serve only as vowels, which has 

5 



34 HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 

increased the difficulty of reading without points ; but 
as, even in the printed bibles, words which want these 
letters in one place, retain them in another, — as an- 
cient MSS. preserve them in many words which are 
always printed without them, — and as they are con- 
stantly retained in the Samaritan Pentateuch ; — from 
these sources, the full writing and regular form of most 
Hebrew words, might perhaps be recovered. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 27. 1. 2. c. 8. Herder on Hebrew 
Poetry. 

121. The Masoretes, in expunging the matres lec- 
tionis, where they thought they served only for vowels, 
and their place would consequently be supplied by the 
newly invented points, have often been mistaken ; and 
by that means, have introduced a multitude of false 
readings, or omissions of these letters, where they are 
essential to the sense. 

122. From supposing the vowel points modern, it 
will not follow, that the sense of the text would be 
altogether uncertain ; for though, in that case, words 
of different significations would consist of precisely the 
same letters, this is no more than what happens in all 
languages, where the sense and connexion, nevertheless, 
enable us sufficiently to distinguish them ; and many 
words, which now would, without points, be the same, 
were, before the invention of these, distinguished in 
writing, by some of the vowel letters. 

123. By affixing to words which consist of the 
same letters, diffi3rent vowel points, according to the 
diversity of their significations, the Masoretes have de- 



HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 35 

termined the sense of Scripture according to their own 
idea of it, or their traditional interpretation ; and this 
sense should not be lightly or hastily departed from. 
Bat they were fallible, and have mistaken in many 
instances ; and therefore, that sense should not be 
implicitly followed, but abandoned without scruple, 
whenever there are good reasons for preferring another 
sense. 

Lowth's Isaiah, Prelim. Diss. p. 54. Simon, V. T. 1. 3. c. 1. 

124 Though the vowel points be not of authority, 
yet they are of considerable use; not only for ascer- 
taining the sense in many instances ; but also, as they 
often indicate the true reading, by their agreeing to it, 
not to the false reading received in the text, — as their 
not being affixed to some words, points out these as 
erroneous, — and as they sometimes give intimation, 
where, in consequence of their introduction, vowel 
letters have been omitted ; and thus lead us to restore 
the true reading. 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. 343. Houbig. prol. p. 49. 
«in " he" is often erroneously put up for ^«'n " she," but always 
shown to be an error by being- pointed «rn. "Jnx having been 
often, through the superstitions of the Jews, written instead 
of nin% is oft§n shown to be so, by its having the points of 
this latter word. 

Ken. ib. Houbig. ib. 
Judg. xvi. 18. " He hath showed (nS) her ;" but pointed as 
'h>, which is right. Keri. 6. MSS. sense. 

Ken. in loc. and Diss. 1. p. 446. 

125. A great multiplicity of accents have been used 
in Hebrew, concerning which different opinions have 
been entertained, similar to those concerning the vowel 



3G HEBREW VOWEL JOINTS. 

points. There can be no doubt, however, that thej 
were introduced along with these by the Masoretes ; 
and they are of no authority nor moment, but only em- 
barrass the language. 

126. There has been a question of the same kind, 
concerning some particulars in the Greek language, on 
which the sense of words in the New Testament some- 
times depends ; the iota subscriptum, the spirits, and 
the accents. 

127. It appears that the ancient Greeks did often 
express the force of the iota subscriptum, though by a 
different figure from ours ; but it is certain that they 
often omitted it in writing ; and as it is never found in 
the most ancient MSS. of the new Testament, we are 
sure, either, that the apostles did not write it, or, that 
we cannot discover where they wrote it ; but that it has 
been placed as we now have it, by late transcribers or 
printers ; and consequently, we are at liberty to deter- 
mine for, or against it, in particular passages, accord^ 
ing to the sense. 

Michael. Int. Lect. § S5, 39. Marsh's Michael, ch. IS, 
sect. 6. 

128. Most anciently, the Greeks expressed the aspi- 
ration by the letter H. When, in place of this, they 
adopted the spiritus asper, it appears from medals and 
monuments that they did not always write it, and never 
the spiritus lenis. That it was not written originally 
in the New^ Testament, appears from the most ancient 
versions often confounding words distinguished only by 
the spirits ; and therefore, we are at liberty to interpret 



.STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 37 

such words, in the manner most suitable to the sense, 
without regarding the spirits by which late transcribers 
or editors have restricted them. 

Michael, ib. § 40. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 7. 

129. Without inquiring whether the Greeks pro- 
nounced their language according to the accents, or 
not, it is allowed that they did not commonly write the 
accents ; and as none are found in any MSS. of the 
New Testament, prior to the eighth century, it is clear 
that the present accents are not authorized by the apos- 
tles ; and therefore, we are not bound to determine the 
signification of words according to them. 

Michael, ib. § 42. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 8. 



SECT. IV. 

Of the Structure and Genius of the Hebrew Language, 

130. The nature, the structure, and the genius of 
a language, are always congruous to the situations, the 
customs, and the manners of the people who use it ; 
and must be attended to, in order to understand their 
writings. In the Hebrew language, there are many 
peculiarities necessary to be remarked for interpreting, 
the books written in it. 

131. In Hebrew, there are no neuter nouns, and 
consequently, no neuter gender of adjectives. This is 
an instance of simplicity, and it introduces peculiar 
manners of expression. [N" 852,] 

Glass. Philol," Sacr. 1. 3. can. 19. 



38 STRUCTURE OF THE HEBRtiW. 

132. What are called conjugations in Hebrew, arc 
very unlike to those of other languages ; being different 
forms which any one verb assumes, by the addition of 
some letters, in order to express the various modifica- 
tions of which the action denoted by it, is susceptible ; 
and thus answering to the several modes, voices, and 
species of verbs in other languages. 

Schultens, Gram. Reg. 108. 

133. Some have affected to multiply the conjuga- 
tions, under pretence of removing anomalies from the 
language ; but they would thus introduce a minuteness 
of distinction inconsistent with the simplicity of the He- 
brew. Some of their additional conjugations, and even 
two of those commonly received, are discriminated only 
by the vowel points, and therefore arbitrarily ; others 
of them, perhaps, are either irregular and infrequent 
forms of words, or inferred from a false reading in 
some text of Scripture. 

Schultens, Gram, Heb. Robertson's Gram. Heb. I. 2. c. 1. 
Wilson's Heb. Gram. c. 10. 

134. Grammarians have generally attempted to ac- 
commodate the Hebrew syntax to the rules of the 
Greek and Latin languages ; but by this they have only 
perplexed it ; for it is, in almost every instance, totally 
dissimilar. Thus, nouns relating to the same thing 
are, in Hebrew, joined by mere apposition, without any 
regard to their being of the same gender or number. 

Buxt. Thesaur. 1. 2. c. S. Robertson's Gram, 1. 4. c. 1. § 1. 

Wilson's Gram. c. 20. Glass. 
Deut. xxii. 28. nSlHD nyj " a girl, a virgin.'* 
Gen. xlii. 30. ^:iN (plur.) ii'^«n (sing.) " The man, the lord.*' 



STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 39 

So very often Q^nSx nin^ " Jehovah God." 
Hab. i. 16. iSjnd (inasc.) nxi3 (fem.) "Their portion is 
fatness." 

135. When a substantive agrees with an adjective, it 
is placed first ;^ but, if the adjective stand first, it is an 
affirmation ; a verb, generally that of existence, being 
understood.^ 

Buxt. ib. 1. 2. c. I. Robertson, ib. § 2. Glass, ib. L 3. t. 1. 
^ Prov. XV. 14. p:3J :iS, " An understanding heart." 

Ver. £0. D^n p, " a wise son." 
2 [Psal. cxix. 75, 137. N° 136.] 

136. An adjective agrees with its substantive, and a 
verb with its nominative, generally in gender and num- 
ber, but not always ; for sometimes a plural substantive 
has a singular verb or adjective ; and, a collective 
substantive, or two or more singular substantives, may- 
have a plural verb, adjective, or participle. 

lid. ib. Glass, ib. 3. t. 4. can. 9. t. 3. can. 53. 
Buxt. ib. 1. 2. c. 9, 10. 

Gen. i. 1. D-nSx (plur.) N'i:3 (sing.) " Creavit Dii." 
Psal. cxix. 75» yiDBWD pi2f " Right are thy judgments." 
Ver. 137. ytDQWD Ity^ " Upright are thy judgments." 
Psal. Ixxxix. 15. "Blessed is the people (LpT] sing.) that know 
{y^V plur.) the joyful sound ; Jehovah, in the light of thy 
countenance they shall walk {\)2'ir\' plur.)" Gen. xli. 57, 
" All the earth (if'i.sn sing.) came (l«3 plur.) into Egypt." 
But Sam. hasnm^n plur. 
Ken. in loc. 
Psal. Ixxxix. 12. " Tabor and Hermon, in thy name they shall 

rejoice" (u:t plur.) 
V^er. 11. " The world and its fulness, thou hast founded them" 
(DniD^ plur. aiT.) 

137. As the Hebrews do not distinguish the cases of 
nouns by varying the termination, they can have no 



40 STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW, 

rules for the government of nouns ; they have not even 
particles for regularly marking a particular case ; those 
that are commonly reckoned such, being truly prepo- 
sitions, vv^hich have a variety of significations. 

138. The only government of nouns, producing a 
change of termination, is what is called the constructed 
state ; which is more properly a sort of composition ; 
for the change of termination accelerates the pronun- 
ciation, and it is made in the governing word ; but 
this form of expression has all the same varieties of 
force, as the government of a genitive in in other lan- 
guages. 

Buxt. Thes. 1. 2. c. 3. reg. 1. Glass, ib. 1. 3. t. 1. can. 30. 

Ezra. iii. 7. iy"<i3 ]V"\^iDy " according to the decree of Cyrus ;" 
i. e. given by him. 

Gen. iii. 21. my mjra, " coats (made) of skins." 

Psal. xliv. 22. nnDD |«:fD, " as sheep of (intended for) slaugh- 
ter." 

Gen. ii. 9. C3'*nn ^j;, " The tree of (giving) life.'* 

Prov. i. 7. nirr nNn% " The fear of Jehovah," as its object. 

Exod. iv. 10. a""\:il iy\s, " A man of words." i. e. an eloquent 
man. 

139. The government of the affix pronouns, by 
verbs, in like manner a species of composition. 

140. Almost all the other regimens in the Hebrew, 
are by means of prepositions ; and are, therefore, en- 
tirely resolvable into the various significations of the 
prepositions. 

Buxt. Thes.l. 2. c. 11. Glass, ib.l. 3. t. 1. can. 31. 

141. It is not, perhaps, strictly true, that all the 
primitive words, or roots, in Hebrew, consist of three 



STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 41 

letters ; but very many of them do ; and this regular- 
ity is a mark of its being a simple and original lan- 
guage, not one made up by the mixture of several. 

142. It is whimsical to pretend that the Hebrew 
language contained as many roots as there are possible 
combinations of three letters, and consequently, was 
singularly copious ; for no language was ever formed 
with such mathematical exactness. Men form words 
only as they have occasion for them ; and there was 
nothing in the situation of the Hebrews that could lead 
them to form a language remarkably copious. Yet it 
was not, on the other hand, remarkably scanty ; and it 
is certain that they had many roots which do not now 
appear in the bible. 

Schultens. 

143. It is commonly affirmed, that all the Hebrew 
primitives are verbs ; and it is evident that, at least, 
most of them are such. This is another mark of its 
being a simple and original language ; for verbs are 
expressive of the powers and qualities of things, as in 
act or exertion, in which case they are most striking, 
and therefore would be first taken notice of, and ob- 
tain names. 

144. It requires abstraction, to conceive the power 
by itself, separate from its being exerted ; therefore 
adjectives, which express a power as quiescent, would 
be formed later than verbs, and naturally derived from 
them. In Hebrew, they are thus derived ; and they 
are very few, which proceeds from the people being 
little addicted to abstraction, and has; produced many 

a 



42 



STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 



methods of supplying their place ; and these form pe- 
culiar idioms in that language. 

145. It was natural for men to denominate sub- 
stances from some of their powers or qualities, the 
exertion of which had been most striking to them ; and 
consequently, to derive their substantive nouns from 
verbs ; and it is so in the Hebrew tongue. 

146. The first w^ords of every language express 
objects of sense. The Hebrew verbs would^ therefore, 
originally signify the actions or motions of bodies; and 
they would come to have other significations, by being 
transferred to these from that original sense. 

h^ii, 1 . To wither, Isa. xxiv. 4. " The earth mourneth (with- 
ereth) and fadeth away ; the world languisheth (contrast) 
and fadeth away." 2. To mourn or pine away with grief. 

147. In a language formed in rude times, it is nat- 
ural, likewise, to expect, that the primitives or verbs 
would express very particular ideas, the motion or ex- 
ertion of a power as it appears in one object, or one 
species of objects ; and from this, would be transferred 
to other more general senses. This is the case with 
the Hebrew; it necessarily renders the language very 
tropical ; and it occasions the idioms in which words of 
the same original are conjoined. 

Warburt. Div. Leg. Blair, ib. 
•^33 (prim.) " To smear with pitch." (Sec.) " To atone." 
j;"^t yn? " Seeding seed," for " producing seed." 

148. It is by discovering the primary signification of 
a root, that its secondary senses can be accounted for; 
for they have all some analogy to it, though not, per- 
haps, to one another. 



STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 43 

*1S0, (prim.) "To smear with pitch," (Sect.) l."To cover 
sin, atone ;" 2. " To close," which now appears only in 
some of its derivatives. 

149. Derivatives are, in Hebrew, formed by a very 
regular analogy, from the roots, by the omission or 
the change of some of their letters, or by the addition 
of other letters to the beginning, the middle, or the 
end ; and, according to the particular manner of their 
formation, they have some correspondent variety of 
signification. 

Wilson, Gram. c. 17. Schultens, Gram. 

150. It is only the root of the verb that is properly 
simple ; all the other parts of it are compounds of that 
with other words, especially pronouns ; which gives 
great regularity and significance to the conjugations. 

151. The Hebrew has few compound verbs, though 
several compound nouns; but it never compounds 
these with the negative particle ; and this occasions 
several idioms. 

Grammars. Lowth on Tsa. x, 15. Schultens, ib. reg. 122. 

Hence a negative particle with 'iD " all," makes an universal 
negation. Psal. cxliii. 2. 

^n-^D pn]f'"iSS, " No living man shall be justified." Glass, ib. 
1. 3. t. 5. can. 19. 

Prefixed to nouns, it has a privative force. Prov. xxx. 25. 
** The ants are a people {l^ «^) not strong," i. e. weak. Job 
xxvi. 2, 3. Amos. vi. 13. 
Lowth ib. Glass, ib. can, 20. 

By a natural transition, this particle, with either a verb or ad- 
jective, comes to denote a strong negation or a contrariety. 
Exod. XX. 7. " not guiltless," i. e. very guilty, Hos. xi. 9, 
"I am God iy''i<"«^l) and not man," i. e. far from being man. 
Isa. V. 15. " As if the staff should lift itself up against (y;r n*?) 



44 STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 

the not wood," i. e. the man who uses it, who is far from, 
being wood. [N° 885.] ch. xxxi. 8. Iv. 2. 

In analogy to this, a negative with an adjective forms a super- 
lative. Prov. xviii. 5. " It is not good (very bad) to accept 
the person of the wicked." 

Psl. xliii. 1. "Plead my cause against a nation wof ^ofiZy," 
very ungodly. Hos. xiii. 13. "A son not wisey'^ very 
unwise. 

152. It is common for those who have a scanty 
language, to supply its defects by mixing something of 
natural language with the artificial ; and hence may be 
deduced many peculiarities of the Hebrew. 

Warburt. Div. Leg. vol. 3. p. 97. Blair, ib. 

153. Thus, dwelling on a syllable, or doubling its 
consonant, gives it an emphasis in pronunciation, and 
may therefore be adopted for giving intenseness to its 
signification. 

Hence the custom in Hebrew, at least since the introduction of 
the present points, of giving force to a word by a dagesh 
forte ; and the conjugations which are formed only by the 
insertion of it, Pihhel, Pyhhal. 

154. In like manner, redoubling a syllable gives 
emphasis and force. 

Hence the nouns formed by doubling some of the radicals, often 
expressive of rapidity or repetition. 
Wilson, Gram. 17. 
Hence also, several of the additional conjugations which some 
have proposed, Pehalhal, Pihlel, pyhlal, Hithpahlel. 
Schultens, Gram. Robertson's Gram. 1. 2. c. i. 

155. Redoubling or repeating a whole word, has 
the same effect ; and into this, many Hebrew idioms 
are reducible. 



STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 45 

Glasf?. ib. 1. ,3. t. 1. can. 5. t. 3. can. 32, 37. 

Repetition of a noun, to express vehemence, Psal. xxii. 1. "My 
God, my God." Jer. vii. 4. " Trust not in lying words," 
saying, " The temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord, 
the temple of the Lord." Or, to express continuancey Deut' 
xvi. 20. "Ye shall follow justice, justice," i. e. constantly. 
Or, to express multitude, Gen. xiv. 10. " The valley of 
Sid dim was slime pits, slime pits," i. e. full of them. Exod. 
viii. 14. Judg. v. 22. 2 Kings iii. 16. Joel. iii. 14. 

Repetition of an adjective forming its superlative. Eccl. vii. 
25. " That which is deep deep," i. e. very deep. 

Hence also, a noun governing itself forms a superlative. Gen. 
ix. 25. " Canaan shall be a servant of servants," i. e. in the 
most abject slavery. 

Thus also, a verb governing itself in the infinitive, expresses 
certainty or vehemence, Gen. ii. 17. " Thou shalt die to 
die," i. e. certainly. 

And in like manner, a verb govering a noun derived from it- 
self, or analogous in sense, is emphatical. "To die the 
death, to fear with fear." 

156. Men, while rude and unrefined, do not study 
to express themselves with accuracy ; and from this 
principle, many Hebrew idioms may be accounted 
for. 

Hence, some of their particles have a great multitude of signifi- 
cations ; ) has 75.; it always connects, but in very different 
relations. 

Hence, also, many circumlocutions, substantives for adverbs, 
words redundant, definites for indefinites, as " yesterday" for 
any past time, " to-morrow" for any future. 

A relative pronoun for a copulative, Eccles. v. 17. *'It is 
nS'"^iyN 21D good which (and) comely." 
Glass, ib. 1. 3. t. 7. can. 3, 5. 

A passive verb for the active of its correlate. IHTJ " to be ad- 
monished, warned." Eccl. iv. 13, Ezek. xxxiii. 4, 5. " to 
take warning, listen to admonition." 



46 STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 

One verb expressing, not strictly the action intended, but one 
antecedent to, or connected with it. nph strictly " to take," 
but often " to bring" what had been previously taken. Exod. 
XXV. 2. ** That they take (bring to me) an offering." Est. 
ii. 1 6. " Esther was taken (brought unto) king Ahasuerus." 
(N° 871.) 
Glass, ib. c. 2. 

Verbs which denote a complete action, used for signifying the 
beginning of it. 2 Sam ii 10. " Ishbosheth was forty 
years old when he reigned," i. e. began to reign. (N® 873.) 
Glass ib c. 3. 

On the other hand, verbs denoting the beginning of action, 
used for signifying the complete action. Isa. Ix. 11, inn£31 
** and thy gates shall be opened," " open." Eng. " kept 
open." 
Glass, ib. 

Verbs of doing, signifying only the continuance of action. 
Lev. vi. 12. " The fire upon the altar ipin shall burn," con- 
tinue to burn, made to continue. (N° 873.) 
Glass, ib. c. 4. 

Or signifying only, the giving occasion to a thing's being done. 
Gen xlii. S3. " Then om^nn shall ye bri:ig my grey hairs 
with sorrow to the grave," be, though undesignedly and in- 
voluntarily, the occasion of their falling, &c. (N° 882.) 

157. But men, while rude, study to express them- 
selves with force ; and many Hebrew idioms take their 
rise from this propensity. 

** Always" for " frequently." " Eternity" for " a long dura- 
tion." A negation for a comparative. " Mercy and not 
sacrifice," for "mercy rather than sacrifice," Hos. vi 6. 
" Receive my instruction, and not (rather than) silver ;" for 
it follows, " and knowledge rather than choice gold." Prov. 
viii. lb. (No 931.) 

The nominative absolute, setting the principal word strongly in 
view ! Psal. xi. 4. " Jehovah ! in heaven is his throne." 
Horsley's Hosea, Pref. 



STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 47 

Affirmative verbs for the negation or extenuation of their con- 
traries ; " To hate," for " not to love," or " to love less." 
Gen. xxix. 31. " Leah was hated," loved less than Rachel, 
ver. 30. (N^ 884.) 

Glasss. 1.3. t. 3. can. 19. 

So, things are said to act, or to be done, when it is only meant, 
that they are known, discovered, thought to be, or acknowl- 
edged Gen. XXX. 13. " Leah said, the daughters" 'Jnii't? 
literally, " shall make me bles ed," reckon me blessed, or call 
me blessed, happy. Eng. (N° 883.) 
Glass. ib.c. 17, 18. 

Hence also, the superlative formed by adding any of the names 
of God. Gen. xxiii. 6. " A prince of God." Ch. xxx. 8. 
« Wrestlings of God." Ruth ii. 20, " Blessed to the Lord," 
very blessed. Jon. iii. 3. " Great to the Lord," very 
great. 

158. Sometimes, these two propensities, to speak 
with force^ but without precision^ operate in conjunc- 
tion ; and there are some Hebrew idioms which bear 
plain marks of that conjunction. 

Things are said to be done, when it is only meant that they 
are notified, declared, or foretold. Gen. xxvii. 37. vnaiy " I 
have made him thy lord," declared, foretold that he shall be. 
(No 883.) 

Glass. 1. 3. t. 3. can. 15. 
Verbs of acting, signify a number of related conceptions, none 
of which come fully up to action ; as only, the faculty or 
power of acting. Gen. xvi. 10. " It shall not be numbered," 
cannot be. Psal. xxii. 18. "ISDN " 1 will tell (may tell) all my 
bones," (N" 876.) 
Glass, ib. can. 5. 
The right of acting. Exod. xxxiii. 5. tHv^ « I will (justly 
might) come up into the midst of thee. yn^^DI and 1 will 
(might) consume thee." (N° 877.) 
Glass, ib. can. 6. 
The duty of acting. Mai. i. 6. " A son 133^ honoureth his 



48 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

father," not, "always honours," but ought, is obliged to 
honour him. (No 878.) 
Glass, ib. 
The will to act. Exod. xii.'48. " If a stranger HK^IM will keep 
the passover," desire, incline to keep it ; for he must first be 
circumcised. (N° 879.) 
Glass, ib. can. 7. 
The endeavour or tendency to act. Gen. xxxvii. 21. " Reuben 
heard, inVv^l and he delivered him out of their hands," en- 
/ • , deavoured to deliver, ver. 22, &c. (N° 879.) 

Glass, ib. can. 8. 
A command to act. Gen. xl. 22. " Pharaoh hanged the chief 
baker," commanded him to be hanged. (N° 881.) 
Glass, ib- can. 22. 
Or, a permission to act. Deut. ii. 28. ^J*T:]iyn, literally, " thou 
shalt make me provide bread for money." Eng. ** sell me," 
permit me to buy. (N° 881.) 



SECT. V. 

Of the Language of the New Testament, 

159. The Greek language, in which the New Tes- 
tament is written, is, in many particulars of its struc- 
ture and genius, very different from the Hebrew ; but 
it has been so often and so fully explained, that it will 
not be necessary for us to examine it minutely. 

160. On account of its being, at that time, the lan- 
guage most universally known, it was the fittest in 
which the New Testament could have been written. 

Marsh's Michael, ch. 1. § 1. 

161. The language of the New Testament is not 
pure Greek, but Hellenistical, formed by a mixture of 



LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 49 

oriental idioms and expressions with those which are 
properly Greek. 

Simon, Hist. Crit. N. T. p. 1. c. 27. Michael, ib. § 6. 
Macknight on Epistles, Ess. 4. and Supplement to Ess. 4. 
Marsh's Michael, ch. 4. § 3. 

162. Most of the words, how.ever, and many of the 
phrases of the New Testament, are pure Greek ; and 
so far as they are, they must be explained according to 
the usage of the classical writers, and, consequently, 
cannot be understood without having recourse to their 
works ; for wnich reason, collections of correspondent 
terms and phrases from them, with the sense in which 
they use them, have very properly and successfully 
been made by several learned men, and applied to the 
illustration of the New Testament. 

Grotius in Comment, passim. Rachel. Eisner. Palairet. Wolfii, 
curse Philolog. in N. T. Bos. 

Acts xxvii. 13. " Tioosing, they sailed octc-cv (found only here) 
Tjjv K^j;t3)v, nearer, close to, Crete." 
Eisner. Palair. Bos. Raphel. in loc. 

Rom. l.'Sl. 2 Tim. iii. 3. us-opyot, ecTTrovhiy uv^f^^fioi, occur not 
elsewhere, but frequently in Grefek writers, " without natural 
affection, covenant-breakers, fierce." 

Mark xiv. 72. Keti sTrtiiecX&fv £K>Mt£, frequent in the N. T. but in 
no sense suitable here — very differently explained. (Critic, in 
loc.) Eng. " When he thought thereon ;" but rather, " hav- 
ing gone out," (Polyb.) which agrees with Matthew and 
Luke. Raphel. 

Acts xvii. 31. n;s-/v Trscpeto-^&Vi Most obviously, " Giving faith," 
but not true. ^<r<5, " a proof or argument," (Aristot. Rhetor, 
1. i. c. 1.) ^iTiv TTupixstv, "to confirm, prove, give proof, ren- 
der credible," (Polyb. Plutarch.) So Eng — " given assur- 
3^ce." Raphel. 



50 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

1 63. In the language of the New Testament, all the 
dialects occur ; but the attic is predominant, and runs 
through all the books of it. 

Wjsii Dialect. Sacra. 

164. But, the writers of the New Testament being 
Jews, would, in writing Greek, naturally run into the 
idioms of their own language, or introduce hebraisms 
or syriasms; which have, however, been, without 
reason, denied by some, and reckoned much more nu- 
merous than they really are, by others. 

Pfochenii Diatrib. de Linguae N. T. Puritate. 
Fechtii Prgef. in Eaphel. Michael, ib. § 7—10. 
Mackuight, ib. Marsh's Michael, ch. 4. § 5, 6. 

165. Such idioms can be illustrated only from the 
oriental languages, the study of which is thus strongly 
recommended, as being necessary even for understand- 
ing the New Testament ; and from the version of the 
70, which is written in the same idiom. (No. 251.) 

166. There are in the New Testament, some He- 
brew and Syriac words. 

MichaeL ib. § 6. 

(Heb.) hfJL-o, "truly, so be it." Glass. Philol. 1, 5. t. 5. can. 16. 

Hejiin. Theolog. Lect. p. 131. 
AAA'<Aji/«, " Praise the Lord." Glass, ib. 
ZtCctux, " Tares." 

(Syr.) Mfic/i4,tt<yvfl45) " riches," Erasm. Drus. Grot. 
Mupav ci0x. Some, " The Lord is come ;" others, " In the 

coming of the Lord ;" others, " Excommunicated in the 

highest sense," which was termed Nn?3iy ; others, in general, 

" Devoted to destruction." 

Critici in 1 Cor. xvi. 22. Tremell. Vorstius. Locke. 
Macknight. 



USE OF THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 61 

167. Tliere are likewise Greek words used in a 
Hebrew or Sjriac sense. 

Michael, ib. 

Avvx/Lct^ " A miracle." 

Eis viKoq, "for ever." I Cor. xv. 54. 

Capell. Grot. Crell. Macknight. 
PsjAca, « A thing." Luke i. 37. ii. 15. Acts v. 32. 
Mat. iv. 4. H. R. Essay for a new Translation, p. 2. c. 4. § 

3, 4. 
EvaTicrua-6£, « Hearken," Acts ii. 14. 
Grot. W jss. Dialect. Sacra. 

168. There are in the New Testament, Hebrew and 
Sjriac constructions. 

Michael, ib. Wyss. ib. 

169. There are in the New Testament, Hebrew and 
Syriac idioms and phrases. 

Marsh's Michael, ch. 4. § 5. 



SECT. VI. 

Of the Use of the Original Languages in Criticism* 

170. The discovery of the true sense of scripture 
is evidently the purpose to which knowledge of the 
original languages is principally and most directly ap- 
plicable ; and the manner of applying it to this purpose 
being the same as that of coming to the understanding 
of any language, to enlarge upon it would be unnec- 
essary. 

171. It has been made a question, Whether know- 
ledge of these languages ought to be at all applied to 



52 USE OF THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 

the discovery of the true reading ; some asserting, that 
no correction of the ordinary text, by critical conjec- 
tures founded on the nature of these languages, is at 
all allowable ; and producing several arguments in sup- 
port of their assertion. 

172. But others have claimed the liberty of making 
emendations by critical conjectures ; and, though they 
have often carried this liberty too far, yet they have 
shown, that the arguments urged against it only con- 
demn the abuse of it, but prove not that it can never 
be legitimately used. 

Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. 4. 

173. If, among different readings found in MSS. 
one be agreeable to the nature of the language and 
another not, the former ought certainly to be preferred. 

174. When a reading occurs (though it were in all 
MSS.) which is a plain barbarism or solecism, it is 
undoubtedly a mistake of transcribers, and should be 
corrected according to the rules of the language. 

Houbig. ib. c. 4. reg. T, 8, 10. 

] 75. When a passage cannot be reconciled to the 
grammar of the language, without supplying words 
which that language never uses to omit, it may be de- 
termined that the passage has been corrupted. 

Houbig. ib, reg. 9. 

1 76. When an expression is clearly inconsistent with 
the rules of the language, it may be held a corruption, 



USE OF THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 53 

even though we should not be able to discover how it 
ought to be corrected. 
Houbig. ib. reg. 11. 

177. But these principles ought to be applied with 
great caution, and under several limitations. Thus, 
corrections supported solely by the nature of the lan- 
guage, ought to be admitted only when they are abso- 
lutely necessary ; and, therefore, a place is not to be 
looked upon as corrupted, or corrected on conjecture, 
merely because it might be more commodiously ex- 
pressed. 

Houbig. ib. reg. 12. & p. 134. caut. 2. 

178. When two readings occur, one of which is 
suitable to the most common usage of the language, 
the other agreeable to a real, but less common usage of 
it, the latter ought to be preferred ; for it is not so 
probable that a transcriber should, by mistake, have 
fallen into it, as into the other. 

Michael, ib. § 15. 

1 79. For detecting mistakes repugnant to the nature 
of the language, and for correcting them, a very thor- 
ough acquaintance with that language is absolutely 
necessary ; and without this, the attempt will produce 
only blunders. 

180. The greater number of independent MSS. 
there are of any part of Scripture, and the nearer they 
reach to the time of its being written, the less scope 
there is for conjectural emendations from the nature of 



64 USE OF THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 

the language ; for the less chance there is that a cor- 
ruption should have crept into all the copies : for the 
first of which reasons, greater latitude is allowable 
with respect to the Apocalypse than the other books of 
the New Testament ; and for both, in the Old Testa- 
ment, than in the New. 
Michael. § 31. Kennic. Di^s. Gen.' 



KINDRED LANGUAGES^ 55 



CHAP. III. 



The Kindred Languages. 

181. Every language may be, in many instances, 
illustrated, and the books written in it explained, from 
other languages derived from the same original, and 
akin to it. 

182. The Hebrew language, in particular, stands 
in need of illustration by this means, and is capable of 
it; and the light hence derived, will tend directly to 
the explication of the Old Testament, but indirectly 
likewise to that of the Hellenistical Greek of the New. 

183. The Greek, though standing much less in need 
of it, may, perhaps, sometimes receive illustration from 
other languages. 



SECT. I. 

What Languages are Useful. 

184. The languages useful for illustrating the He- 
brew, are those which, along with itself, are dialects 
immediately derived from the primitive language, and 
which preserve nearly the same structure and analogy. 

Schultens, Orig. Heb. T. % c. 1. 



56 KINDRED LANGUAGES. 

185. These dialects are reducible to two principal 
ones, the Araoiean. and the Arabic. 

Schultens, ib. 

186. The Aramean is subdivided into two branches, 
the Chaldaic, and the Syriac ; the former of which 
was the Language of the Babylonians; and it the 
Jews learned during their captivity, retained in a great 
measure afterwards, and used in their Targums, and 
other most ancient books. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 18. Schultens, ib. § 8, 9. Walton, Prol- 
S. § 24. Prol. 12. § 2. 

187. In this language, some parts of the later books 
of Scripture are written ; for the understanding of 
which, it is, therefore, immediately necessary ; but it 
may likewise throw^ light on the other parts written in 
Hebrew ; it did, in fact, contribute very much to the 
preservation or the recovery of the knowledge of the 
Hebrew tongue ; and it would be of the greatest utility, 
if there were more remains of it. 

Simon, ib. Schultens, ib. Walton, Prol. 12. § 3. 

188. The Syriac is very analogous to the Chaldaic, 
being little more than the same language, in the form 
which it assumed at a later period, and expressed in a 
different character. It is in it, that the Syriac versions 
of the Scriptures are written. 

Sinlon, ib. c. 15. Schultens, ib. § 10, 13. Walton, Prol. 13, § 
2, 3, 4. 

189. It, too, being highly analogous to the Hebrew, 
would contribute much to the illustration of Scripture, 
were it not that there are very few books extant in it. 

Walton, ib. 



KINDRED LANGUAGES. 57 

190. The other principal dialect, the Arabic, is 
somewhat more remote from the Hebrew, but analo- 
gous enough for fitting it to throw light upon it ; and, 
its being still a living language, and one in which 
there is a multitude of books, makes it very useful for 
that purpose. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 16l» Schultens, ib. § 14—21. Oratio de 
Lingua Arab. Bochart. Hier. Prsef. Phaleg. 1. i. c. 15. 
Walton, Prol. 14. § 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 14. 

191. From it, the Rabbins received some assistance 
in restoring the Hebrew language, but not much ; it 
has been more extensively, and very successfully, ap- 
plied by several Christian writers, to the illustration of 
Scripture. 

Bochart. L. de Dieu. Fuller. Pococke. Schultens, Orig. 
Heb. 

192. Besides these principal dialects, there are some 
less considerable branches. 

193. The Samaritan dialect is a mixture of Hebrew 
with the several languages of the colonies transported 
into Samaria ; but little light can be derived from it, 
because there are very few books written in it. 

194. The Ethiopic, or Abyssinian language, has a 
great affinity to all the oriental dialects, but greatest to 
the Arabic, from which it is immediately derived ; and 

, it has been applied in some degree to the illustration of 
Scripture. 

Siihon, ib. c. 16. Bochart. L. de Dieu. Hottinger. Ludolf. 
Hist. Ethiopic. Comment. Schultens, ib. § 22^ 23. Walton, 
Prol. 15. § 6, 7, 8. 
8 



58 CONSULTING KINDRED LANGUAGES. 

195. The Rabbinical Hebrew is a mixture of seve- 
r?^ languages, which cannot be of great use for illus- 
trating Scripture, but ought not, perhaps, to be totally 
despised. 

Schultens, ib. § 5, 6, 7. 

196. The Latin is near akin to the Greek ; which, 
however, needs little illustration^ from it. 



SECT. If. 

The Necessity and Propriety of seeking Assistance 
from the Kindred Languages. 

197. The Old Testament, comprehending books 
on different subjects, by many different authors and in 
very different ages, does contain more of the Hebrew 
language than any volume of the same size contains of 
any other language. 

198. Yet, being the only book extant in Hebrew, it 
is impossible that it should contain the w hole of that 
language ; and that it does not, there is internal evi- 
dence, from its having roots without their derivatives, 
or derivatives without their roots ; besides, that it can- 
not be supposed sufficient for ascertaining the precise 
signification of all the words found in it, which seems, 
in some instances, to have been very early lost by the 
Jews. 

Schultens de Defect. Ling. Heb. Orig. Heb. T. 1. Intr. T. 
2. Intr. 

Even the 70 version retains some Hebrew words, as not know- 
ing how to translate them. 2 Kings xii. 7. 12. BeJVx. ch. 
xxiii. 7. Kxha-if^. 1 Ohron. xxix. 2, <roctf*. Job. xxxix. 3L 



USES OF THE KINDRED LAPTGUAGES. 59 

199. From these circumstances arises a necessity of 
having recourse to the languages most akin to it, that 
from them we may, as much as possible, supply the 
deiiciences of the Hebrew, as it stands in the Bible, and 
learn its full extent. 

200. The propriety of illustrating the language of 
the bible, from those akin to it, arises from their affin- 
ity to it in every material respect, being so great, as to 
fit them for throwing very considerable light on the 
remains of the Hebrew. 

201. It is by those who understood not the original 
dialects, or understood them but imperfectly, that the 
propriety of applying them to the illustration of Scrip- 
ture, has been called in question ; they who understood 
them best, have always agreed that the application of 
them is a legitimate mean of criticism, and of very 
great utility. 

202. The particular objections urged against that 
application, only prove that it may be abused, and 
ought to be made with proper limitations; but do not 
conclude against the use of it.^ 



SECT. III. 

Uses of the Kindred Languages in determining the true 
Reading, 

203. The Kindred Languages may lead us to dis- 
cover the occasions of such false readings as transcrib- 
ers, unskilled in thus Hebrew, but accustomed to some 



60 USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 

of the other dialects, have made, by writing words in 
the form of that dialect, instead of the Hebrew form. 

Houbig. Prol.p. 28. 

204. The knowledge of the kindred languages often* 
serves to prevent ill-grounded conjectures of a place 
being corrupted, by shewing that the common reading 
is susceptible of the very sense which that place re- 
quires. 

205. When different readings are found in copies of 
the Bible, the kindred languages may sometimes assist 
us in judging which of them ought to be preferred. 

206. If these languages can be at all permitted to 
suggest a conjectural emendation of the text, it ought 
to be with the most cautious restrictions, and only when 
they shew clearly how the present reading might have 
been naturally introduced. 

SECT. IV. 

Uses of the Kindred Languages in Interpreting 
Scripture. 

207. It is chiefly to the interpretation of Scripture, 
that the Kindred Languages are applicable ; and for 
this purpose they are useful in many ways. 

208. They discover many roots or primitives which 
are not found in the Bible, though their derivatives 
occur there ; and by doing so, point out the signi- 
fications of these derivatives, and either clear the sense, 
or improve the beauty, of the passages in which they 
occur. 



USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 61 

Schultens de Defect. Ling. Heb. c. t. § 11, &c. Orig. Heb. 

jjT (Arab.) 1. "To continue running," as water. 2. "To 
continue (in general) to endure, to be permanent." 3. 
(metaph.) « To be fat." 4, (metaph.) " To be inexhaustibly 
rich/' Hence the adjective jn*N, rendered "hard, rough, 
strong, brave, severe, powerful," &c. signifies, 

1. "Ever-flowing." Amos v. 24. "Let judgment run down 
as waters, and righteousness as a mighty stream,^^ an ever- 
flowing river. Psal. Ixxiv. 15. "Thou driedst u^) mighty 
waters,^^ the everflowing rivers. Exod. xiv. 2r. " The sea 
returned to his strength,^^ uninterrupted flowing. 

2. Durable, permanent." Mic. vi. 2. " Hear, ye strong (dura- 
ble) foumlations of the earth." 

2. '' Fat, full of moisture." Job xxxiii. 19. " Man is chastened 
with pain upon his bed, and the multitude of his bones strong ;^^ 
Eng. " bones with strong pain ;" rather, " multitude of his 
fat bones " 

4. " Inexhaustibly rich and prosperous." Job xii. 19. " And 
overthroweth the mighty;^' but they are spoken of v. 21. 
here, the opulent. So Num. xxiv. 21. Jer. xlix. 19. ch. 
1. 44. 

Schultens, Orig. Heb. T. I.e. 8. 

209. The Kindred Languages point out roots, by 
showing such to be in use, which, though found in the 
Bible, have been overlooked, whose derivatives have 
therefore been irregularly ascribed to other roots, and 
whose signification has been erroneously either trans- 
ferred to these others, or borrowed from them, or is 
left fluctuating and uncertain. 

Schultens, Orig. Heb. T. 1. c. 4. 

lf2fD (Arab.) but overlooked in Hebrew, and confounded with 
yi3, yet occurs thrice. It signifies "to shatter, to break 
into pieces, to break with scattering or dissipation ;" which 
suits all these places. Jer. xxiii. 29. " Is not my word like 
a hammer (J^vs-) that (it) breaketh in pieces the rock ? Habak. 



62 USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 

iii. 6. " He beheld and drove asunder the nations ; (IVVSn^l) ■ 
""and tlie everlasting mountains were scattered,'^ broken 
fn pieces — a bolder figure. Job xvi. 12. " He hath taken 
me bj my neck (■'HS^fS'i) and hath shaken (broken) me to 
pieces." 

210. These languages ascertain the precise significa- 
tion of root^, and consequently, of their derivatives, 
which are acknov^^ledged in the bible, and perhaps 
occur frequently ; but, whose significations have been 
fixed only ^by conjecture, and are, on that account, in- 
definite, precarious, or fluctuating. 

Schultens de Defect. Ling. Heb. ib. § 43, &c. 

:i)2, with which 2fi'3 (No. 209) has been confounded, has been 
rendered, " to scatter, disperse dissipate." But in Arabic 
(prim.) "to overflow," (sec.) " to abound, to weep plentiful- 
ly.'* 2 Sam. xviii. 8. " The battle was there (ni2f3J) scat- 
tered! over (had overflowed) the face of all the country ;" a 
beautiful figure from a river. Job xl. 11. 2f3n " Cast abroad 
the rage (nnn;; the swellings) of thy wrath." {Make the 
swellings of thy wrath to overflow) a beautiful figure. Zech. 
i. 17. (Eng.)' "My cities through prosperity shall jet be 
spread abroad^ Not suitable, for HJlflBn is active. (My 
cities shall yet overflow with good.) 

Schultens, ib.'T. 1. c.4. 

"HS: occurs often, is rendered inconstantly ; sometimes " to 
scatter, to scatter by breaking to pieces," which are the 
senses of 2f13 and 2i2f2. But Arab. Syr. Chald. " to shake, to 
shake out by motion;" so sometimes by 70. Aqu. and Theod. 
rendered sKTivotTs-af, which suits all the texts. 1 Kings v. 9. 
« I will cause them (the trees brought by sea in floats) to be 
discharged;^* the figure lost— (" shake them out of the 
floats.") 70. sKTiva^M. Chald. ])ri2'^^ projiciam eas. Isa. 
XXX. 30. "The Lord shall shew the lighting dowa of his 
arm, with the flame of a devouring fire, (2fDJ) scattering,''^ 
("shaking out;") the world by trembling shaken out of its 



USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 65 

place — (a noble image) " and tempest, and hailstones." Gen. 
ix. 19. "Of them was the whole earth overspread.^^ (nVflJ.) 
« From them the whole earth shook out its whole offspring ;" 
ex his excussit se uni versa terra — a beautiful metaphor. 
Judg. vii. 19. 1 Sam. xiii, 11. Isa. xi. 12. xxxiii. 3". 
xxvii. 9. Jer. xiii. 14. xxii. 28. li. 20. Psal. ii. 9. 
cxxxvii. 9. 
Schultens, ib. 
JiS3 occurs five times in Hiphil. The versions fluctuate, 
Arab, (prim.) "to shine like the rising sun." (sec.) 1. (in 
different conjugations) "To shine in general, to be clear, or 
serene, or manifest, to render clear or serene." 2. " To 
laugh, to be glad, to remove or allay sorrow." Job ix. 27. 
"1 will forget mj complaint, I will leave off my heaviness," 
nJ^S^NI. 70. " I will si^/i." Vulg. " I am wrung with sor- 
roi£7." Syr. Arab. " I am pressed with straits,^^ Chald. 
" I will be confirmed,*^ Eng. " 1 will comfort myself. ^^ 
Literally, " I will lay aside my sorrowful face, and I will 
(prim.) make it to shine like the sun;^^ or, (sec.) "render it 
serene:^ Job x. 20. " Let me alone," n:i*S:JN\ 70. " that I 
may take rest.''* Vulg. " beivail my sorrow.'^ Arab. " take 
breathy Syr. "solace myself and rest.'^ Chald. " rest J' 
Eng. " take comfort.^' Rather, " make (my face) to shine^ 
Psal. xxxix. 13. "0 spare me," m'S^i^l. 70. and Vulg. 
" that I may be cooled or refreshed." Syr. Arab, as in the 
former text. Chald. " and I will depart.'^ Eng. " that I 
may recover strength.^* Rather, " make (my face) to shine ;" 
or " to be serene." Jer. viii. 18. Eng. "(When) I would 
comfort myself Qn^rh^i^) against sorrow, my heart is faint 
in me." 70. Arab. "Incurable with the sorrow of your 
fainting heart." Vulg. " My sorrow is above sorrows" Syr. 
"I am worn away^ Chald. "Because they mocked,'^ 
Rather, " Making (desiring) me (sec. I.) to render my face. 
serenCy'^^ (i. e. thou, who desirest, &c.) " above my sorrow, 
my heart becomes faint in me ;" or better (sec. 2.) " thou, 
who tangliest at my sorrow." Amos, v. 9. ^V'^V ta' J^S^DH. 
70. Arab, " Distributing j bruising upon strength." Aq. 



64 USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 

Vulg. ''Mocking devastation upon the strong." Sjr. " Giving 
dominion." Chald. Eng. " That strengtheneth the spoiled 
(Grot. Drus. Vat. * the spoiler,' — wrong) against the strong." 
Rather (prim.) *' Who maketh devastation to break forth 
like the daivn (i. e. suddenly) upon the mighty ;" a beautiful 
figure, and used Joel ii. 2. Isa. xlvii. 11. 
Schultens, ib. c. 1. Vindiciee Orig. § 2. 

211. The kindred languages afford the best (and 
where the ancient versions vary in translating them, 
the only) means of determining with certainty, the 
sio^nification of such words as occur but once, or very 
seldom, in the Bible. 

212. The kindred languages point out the true 
meaning of some words, whether primitives or deriva- 
tives, to which wrong significations have been affixed 
in the Bible. 

Isa. xviii. 2. " Whose lands the rivers 1«t:2 ;" supposed irreg- 
ular for nT3, (which is found in one MS.) Eng. "have spoil- 
ed ;" but this irregularity unexampled. (Schult. Gram. p. 
491.) Arab. NT3, " to lift itself up, to bi-ing under it." Hence 
" have brought under them," or " overflowed." But XTIl 
Syr. and ^Vl Chald. signifies "a teat;" so that the verb 
may mean, " have nourished ;" very applicable to the Nile 
fertilizing Egypt. 
Lowth's Isaiah in loc. 

213. The kindred languages enable us to discover 
all the senses of words, some of whose significations 
only have been collected from the Bible, though others 
of them would better suit particular passages ; and, by 
this means, both explain these passages, and illustrate 
the connexion between roots and their derivatives. 



USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 65 

214. In particular, these languages discover the 
primary signification of many roots, even such as are 
most commonly used, whose secondary senses alone 
have been attended to, though the primary sense would 
throw light on some texts. 

hl2^ very common, rendered " to be great." But Arab, (prim.) 
" to twist." Hence C3^S 1J Deut. xxii. 12. . " fringes." 
1 Kings vii. 17. " chain-work," i. e. twisted threads. 

(Sec.) 1. "Sinewy, brawny, compact, elegant," in the human 
make. Exod. xv. 16. "By the greatness (brawniness, firm- 
ness) of thine arm, they shall be as still as a stone." 

2. " To struggle, wrestle, fight." Job vii. 17. " What is man 
that thou shouldst magnify (struggle) with him?" — context. 
Schultens, Defect, ling. Heb. § 202, &c. 

plV, very common, "to be just;" but this only at secondary 
sense. Arab, (prim.) " To be stiff, inflexible ;" also " to be 

. inflexibly straight." Hence metaphorically, "to be just, 
true." Isa. xlix. 24. " Shall p 1)1 ^3ty (literally) the captives 
of the just one be delivered ?" but the devil is here meant. 
Eng. " the laiaful captive ;** but this would be unjust. " The 
captives -of the inflexible, rigid, or inexorable one." 
Schultens, ib. § 217, &c. 

Eccles. vii. i6. "Be not righteous overmuch." — objectionable. 
" Be not too rigid or inflexible." 

Schultens, ib. Hammond, Grotius, Patrick, and others, in 
loco. 

215. The kindred languages are the only, or the 
most successful, means of leading us to understand 
the meaning of phrases, or idiomatical combinations 
of words, which are found in the Bible, and the pre- 
cise meaning of which cannot be determined by it ; 
but which, being agreeable to the genius of the orig- 
inal languages, are preserved in books written in 
them. 

- 9 



66 USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 

Dan. xii. 7. " And when he shall have accomplished 1" 2fiD3 
(literally) " to shake the hand,^^ Eng. " to scatter the power 
of the holy people, all these things shall be finished." But 
it is a common phrase in Arabic, signifying " to leave off 
friendship, society, or intercourse with a person." The 
meaning therefore is, " When he shall have put an end to his 
leaving off friendship with the holy people, (i. e. the rejection 
of the Jews, who were his peculiar people,) all these things 
shall be finished." A prediction of the future restoration of 
the Jews from their present state of rejection. 
Srhultens, Orig. Heb. T. 1. c. 4. 



VERSIONS. 67 



CHAP. IV. 



r t^isions of the Scriptures, 

216. Versions of the Scriptures into other lan- 
guages, are subservient to criticism, either by suggest- 
ing the readings which the translators followed, or by 
giving us, in a tongue more intelligible to us, the sense 
of the original. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 1. Walton, Prol. 5. § 3. 

217. Versions are, either such as are confined to 
the Old Testament, such as extend to the whole 
Scripture, or such as are appropriated to a particular 
book. 

218. The versions of the first kind are, the Chal- 
dee paraphrases, the Greek versions, the Samaritan 
versions of the Pentateuch, and modern Jewish ver- 
sions. 

Simon, ib.c. 1. 



68 CHALDEE PARAPHRASES. 

SECT. I. 

Of the Chaldee Paraphrases, 

219. The Targums, or Chaldee paraphrases, took 
their rise from the custom which was introduced after 
the captiv ity, when the Jews had forgotten the Hebrew 
language, of subjoining, to the portions of scripture 
read in their synagogues, an explication in Chaldaic, 
which had then become their vernacular tongue. 

Simon, ib. c. 1, 17. Walton, ProL 12. § 5. Bret. Diss. 

220. For a considerable time, these explications 
were not probably committed to writing ; then they 
began to wrke the ordinary glosses on more difficult 
texts ; and afterwards, by collecting these, and filling 
them up, they completed targums on whole books ; 
but at what time is uncertain. 

Simon, ib. c. 1, 18. Walton, ib, § 7. Bret. ib. 

221. The Jews had many of these, all probably 
collected from scattered or traditional glosses of their 
doctors ; but with very different degrees of judgment. 

Walton, Prol. 12. § 8, &c. Bret. ib. 

222. There are three Chaldee paraphrases on the 
Pentateuch ; the first ascribed to Onkelos, the most 
ancient, and a very literal and exact version ; the sec- 
ond to Jonathan, more modern and inexact ; the third 
called the Jerusalem targum, modern, and of little 
value. 

Simon, ib. Cc 18. Walton, Prol. 5. § 4. Prol. 12. § 8, 9, 11> 13, 
14. Brett, ib. 



CHALBEE PARAPHRASES. 69 

223 On the prophets, both prior and posterior, there 
is a Chaldee paraphrase ascribed to Jonathan ; ancient, 
but not very literal, containing many fables, and suiting 
its explications to the prejudices of the Jews. 

Simon, ib. c. 18. Walton, Prol. 5. ib. Piol. 12. § 8, 10. 
Brett, ib. 

224. There are, likewise, Chaldee paraphrases on all 
the other books of the Old Testament, the authors of 
which are unknown, but which appear to be modern 
and inaccurate ; and, besides all these, the Rabbins 
refer to other targums, which have never been made 
public. 

Simon, ib. Walton, ib. Prol. 12. § 12, 1 5. Brett, ib. 

225. The Chaldee paraphrases are written, some- 
times alternately with the Hebrew, verse by verse ; 
sometimes in parallel columns ; and sometimes in sepa- 
rate books. 

Walton, Prol. 12. § 6. Brett, ib. 

226. While some have condemned the publication 
of these paraphrases, as giving countenance to Jewish 
fables and superstitions ; and others have extolled it as 
sufficient for the confutation of the Jews from their 
own confessions ; both have carried the matter too far. 
But, though the Jews may elude arguments deduced 
from them, as not absolutely irrefragable ; yet, on the 
other hand, such arguments are not wholly destitute of 
force against them. 

Simon, ib. Walton, Prol, 12. § 11, 16, 18. 



70 CHALDEE PARAPHRASES. 

227. The printed Chaldee paraphrases agree, in most 
instances, with the present Hebrew text, which there- 
fore, many conclude, remains now precisely as it was 
when these paraphrases were written. But this con- 
clusion falls to the ground, when it is considered, that 
the MSS. of the Chaldee paraphrases differ much from 
one another, and from the printed copies ; that these 
have been often altered, in conformity to the Hebrew ; 
and that the MSS. are very incorrect, and thus demon- 
strate the carelessness of Jewish transcribers. 

Polyglot, Lond. V. 6. Simon, ib. c. 18. Ken. Diss. 2. c. 2. 
Walton, Prol. 12. § 17. 

228. The Chaldee paraphrases, therefore, especially 
the MSS. of them, still suggest several various read- 
ings, and may assist in recovering some true readings ; 
for which purpose, that of Onkelos, by being most 
literal and accurate, is most useful ; the others, only 
when it appears that they designed to render the very 
words. 

Ken. ib. Houbig. Prol. p. 146. Lowth's- Isaiah, Prelim. 
Dissert, p. 68. 

229. The Chaldee paraphrases, being written in 
the same character with the Hebrew text, will often 
shew the occasions of false readings in the latter, and 
the kinds of mistakes to which transcribers were most 
liable. 
Ken. ib. 

230. These paraphrases contributed very much, in 
in an indirect manner, to the interpretation of Scripture; 
for they were the principal means by which the Rab- 



GREEK VERSIONS. 1 7 

bins and later Christians recovered the Hebrew lan- 
guage, without the knowledge of which, the original 
could not have been at all understood. 
Simon, ib. c. 18. 

231. They contribute likewise to the interpretation 
of Scripture very considerably, in a direct manner; 
as, many of the glosses of the Rabbins, contained in 
them, are just explications, and elucidate its real mean- 
ing in obscure passages. 

Walton, Prol. 12. § 19. 



SECT. II. 

Of the Greek Versions, 

232. The most ancient version of the Old Testa- 
ment, seems to be the Greek, commonly called the 
Septuagint ; for the books which mention others prior 
to it, are of no authority 

Simon, V. T. I. 2. c. 2. Walton, Prol. 5. § 4. Prol. 9. § 6. 
Brett, ib. 

^SS. It received its name, either from its being ap- 
proved by the Sanhedrim, which consisted of 70, or 
rather 72 members ; or, from the Jewish account of 
that number of persons having been set to translate it 
separately, and miraculously coinciding in every word ; 
which is undoubtedly a fable. 

Simon, ib. Walton, Prol. 9. § 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10. Is. 
Vossius de 70 Int. Jos. Scaliger. Hodius de Vers. Grpec. 
auct. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Usser. de 70 Interpret. Brett, ib. 
Beausobre, Introd. 



72 GREEK VERSIONS. 

234 From differences in style, in the degrees of 
accuracy, and in the manner of translating the same 
Hebrew words, or expressing proper names, it appears 
evident, that the different parts of this version were 
made by different authors, and at different times. 

Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. 1. p 197. Diss. 2. p. S21. Diss. Gen. § 
17. Walton, Prol. 9, § 11,12. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Hod. ib. 
Beausobre, ib. 

235. It is agreed, that the Pentateuch was trans- 
lated into Greek about 280 years before Christ, for 
the use of the Hellenistical Jews ; and the version is 
very literal and exact. The other books began to be 
translated about 170 years before Christ, when An- 
tiochus Epiphanes prohibited their reading the law in 
their synagogues, and were finished before the year 
130, all very literally, but with various degrees of skill 
and accuracy. 

Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 211, 319. Diss. Gen. ib. Bos. 
Prol. c. 1. 

236. The Greek version was held in equal vene- 
ration with the Hebrew original, and regarded as alike 
inspired, by the Hellenistical Jews, till the early Chris- 
tians came to use it in their arguments against them ; 
and then, they began to depreciate it, and to appeal 
to the original, or to make alterations in it. 

Simon, ib. and 1. i. c. 1 7. Ken. Diss, Gen. § 67, 68, 70, 79, 86. 
Walton, Prol. 9. § 1, 15. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Brett, ib. Isa. 
xlii. 1. liii. 9. 

237. In order further to discredit it, they procured 
new Greek versions from the Hebrew ; that of Aquila, 



OREEK VERSIONS. 73 

about the year of Christ 130, extremely literal ; that 
of Theodotion, about 175, much less literal; and that 
of Symmachus, about 200, likewise not literal ; of all 
which only some fragments remain, which have been 
collected by Montfaucon. 

Simon, ib. c. 9. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 392, &c. 366. Diss. Gen. § 68 

— 70. Owen's Inquiry. Walton, Prol. 9. § 19. Brett, ib. 
Isa. vii. 14. 7recp6iv(^, 70. veuvtg^ Aq. 

238. Origen's Hexapla was an edition of these four 
versions, along with the original, both in Hebrew and 
in Greek characters, written in parallel columns, with 
marks for pointing out the variations of the 70 from 
the Hebrew, which version he sometimes likewise al- 
tered in conformity to the Hebrew, and with marginal 
notations of the differences between the versions ; a 
work evidently useful when it was written, and which 
would have been now of very great use, if it had re- 
mained entire and uncorrupted ; but it was soon in a 
great measure lost ; and, by the frequency of transcrib- 
ing the 70 version from it, and the carelessness of 
transcribers in omitting the marks of distinction, and 
taking marginal interpretations into the text, that ver- 
sion came in time to be much vitiated and mixed with 
other versions. 

Simon, ib. c. 3, 7. Ken. diss. 1. p. 127. Diss. 2. p. 362, &c. 

377, &c. 384, 397. Walton, Prol. 9. § 20—27. Bos. Prol. c. 

2. Brett, ib. 
Hence double renderings of one Hebrew word. Gen. ix. 20. 

uvOpaTT^ {yeeipz ©>*) yrs. 2. Sam. i. 23. a ^lecxepi^ejpia-fAivoty 

and a d(ex<iifpt<^6i]^c»v. 1 Chron. xi. 11. u'^a^, and e» Kotipa hi. 

Psal. xxii. 1. Bi(^ f<.iif and ^per^es fAot, xxix. 1. vtot ^sy^ 

and Vim Kptm, 

10 



74 GREEK VERSIONS. 

239. In consequence of Origen's work, the old cop- 
ies of the 70 version were disregarded, and gradually 
lost ; but, as many were dissatisfied with the altera- 
tions which he had made, other editions were written 
by Christians, among which Lucian's was most con- 
formable to the old copies. 

Simon, ib. c. 10. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 393. Walton, ib. 
Brett, ib. 

240. There are several MSS. extant of the 70 ver- 
sion, or of parts of it ; the most celebrated of which 
are, the Alexandrian, in the British Museum, and the 
Vatican, at Rome. 

Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 406. Diss. Gen. § 173—175. 
Walton, Prol. 9. § 30, 34. Bos. Prol. c. 2. Grabe, Preefat. 
Brett, ib. 

241. There are four independent editions of this 
version ; the Complutensian, in which variations were 
made from the MSS. in conformity to the Hebrew ; — 
the Aldine, followed with some alterations in several 
subsequent impressions ; — the Vatican, from which all 
the ordinary editions are taken; — and Grabe's, pub- 
lished chiefly, though not entirely, from the Alexan- 
drian MS. 

Simon, ib. c. 3. Catalog, edition. Walton, ib. § 28 — 30. Bos. 
Prol. c. 2. Fabric. Biblioth. Grsec. 1. 3. c. 2. Morin. 
Exercitat. et Prsefat. Grabe, Prsefat. Brett, ib. 

242. These editions differ considerably from one 
another : some give the preference to one, and others 
to another ; but none of them is perfect. By a care- 
ful collation of them all with the MSS. extant, a more 
correct edition might be made out, and would be of 



GREEK VERSIONS. 75 

considerable use, for throwing light upon the Scrip- 
tures. 

Walton, Prol. 9. § 28—51. Brett, ib. 

243. While the Hellenistical Jews, and many of 
the ancient Christians, improperly reckoned the Greek 
version inspired, some moderns have extolled it beyond 
measure, and others, as unduly depreciated it ; the 
truth lies between the two extremes. It is the work 
of fallible men, who fell into many mistakes ; and 
therefore, has no authority, except so far as it is con- 
formable to the original Hebrew ; but, having been 
translated from very ancient copies, it shews in what 
manner they read the text ; and therefore, may serve 
for detecting corruptions, which have since crept into 
the Hebrew copies, and for pointing out the genuine 
reading ; and accordingly, many of the readings which 
it points out, are still found in the oldest and best MSS. 
and ought to be adopted. 

Morin. ib. Is. Voss. ib. Simon, ib. c. 2, 5. L. CapelL Epist. 
ad Usser. Houbig. Prol. p. 143. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 336, 
&c. Walton, Prol. 9. § 8, 14, 15, 52—66. Bos. Prol. c. 1. 
Brett, ib. 

Gen. xxxi. 53. " The God of Abraham, and the God of Nahor 
judge betwixt us, the God of their father, ^^ — superfluous and 
improper — wanting in 70. and 2 MSS. 

Houbig, in loc. Ken. ib. Diss. 1. p, 368. Diss. Gen. 
cod. 80, 227. 

Neh. ix. 17. " And appointed a captain to return in their re- 
bellion, (anD3, which has not this signification) to their 
bondage." 70. ev Aiyv7rT&>, " to their bondage in Egypt.'^ 
ani'Di, 3 or 4 MSS. Edit. Neap. 1487. Agreeable to 
Num. xiv. 4. 
Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 49. 



76 GREEK VERSIONS, 

Zecn. V. 6. " This is (curj?) their eye, (Eng, * their resem- 
blance') through all the earth." CDJi;^ "their iniquity." 
70. uS'tKicc. So Syr. 1 MS. 
Bos. ib. Ken. in loc. 

244. The readings pointed out bj the Greek ver- 
sion, are sometimes the genuine, even when they are 
not found in any Hebrew MSS. now extant. 

Bos. Prol. c. 1. Brett, ib. 

Gen. xxiii. 13. '^i^r^i^ )b nn^c CDX. Lit. "If thou, I pray thee 
hear me." — obscure, elliptical. ^S, " to me." 70. sTret^xv 
TT^oi sy^H et, (as Gen. xxix. 34. 2 Kings, x. 6.) " since thou 
art friendly to me, hear me." So Sam. Corrected in 1 
MS. 

Bos. ib. Ken. in loc. 

Gen. iv. 8. (N° 81.) 

Deut. xxxiii. In the Hebrew there is no mention of Simeon. 
But V. 6, ^v,u,e<i>v s?-a Trohvi. 70. Alex. Aid. Complut. 
Bos. ib. et in loc. 

245. When the Greek version and the Hebrew text 
agree in readings that are false, it proceeds, sometimes, 
from these having crept into the Hebrew copies before 
that version was made, and sometimes, from its having 
been since altered in conformity to them. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. § 17, 18. Diss. 2. p. 194, &c. 
Deut. X. 6. (N° 64.) 

246. The Greek version was one of the principal 
means of recovering the Hebrew language ; and a closer 
attention to it would have rendered the knowledge of 
that language, in many instances, more perfect. 

Simon, ib. c. 5, 8. Capel. Epist. ad Usser. Houb. Prol. p. 143. 

247. The authors of that version used, or were 
acquainted with, languages very analogous to the 



GREEK VERSIONS. 77 

Hebrew ; and therefore, knew significations of words, 
which have since been unknown or overlooked, and 
have given them in some passages where they were 
proper. 

Simon, ib. c. 5. Walton, Prol 9. § 46. Brett, ib. 

248. They mistranslated, however, some words, by 
giving them that signification to which they had come 
by use to be restricted, in that dialect to which they 
were accustomed, though they were capable of another 
more suitable to the passage. 

Simon, ib. c. 5. Walton, proi. 9. § 46. Bos. Prol. c. 1. 
Gen. i. 6. ^'p*i, 70. ^tipeaf^ct " firmament," from the Sjriac use, 
" firm, solid." So Vulg. Eng. Rather, " expanse." 

249. The authors of this version often render He- 
brew words in a sense different from that to which they 
are restricted by the present vowel points ; and often 
in a better sense. 

Simon, ib. c. 5, 8. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Brett, ib. (No 114.) 
Gen. xlvii. 31. "Israel bowed himself upon the bed^s (pm) 
head." 70. pc^Q^a " staff," HMD. 

250. The Greek version often gives a juster sense 
of texts of Scripture, than what, being given by more 
modern versions, is generally put upon them. 

Simon, ib. Walton, Proi. 9. § 46. Bos. Prol. c. 1. 

Gen. vi. 3. « My Spirit shall not always strive with man." 

Eng. — remain, 70. Vulg. connexion, " for that he is flesh, 

yet his days shall be 120 years." 
Simon, ib. c. 5. 

251. The Greek version, being written in the very 
same dialect with the New Testament, often serves, 



78 SAMARITAN VERSIONS. 

both to determine the genuine reading, and to fix the 
meaning of words in passages of it. (No. 165.) 

Bos. Prol. c. 1. Grotius in N. T. Kuchen. Animad. in Evang. 

Mack night, ib. 
Mark. v. 38. aA«A««{«vT«5. all MSS. yet suspected to be for 

oAoAyJovrotj, but frequent in 70. 
Mill, in loc. 
Luke viii. 20. Kui ouvv^yytM oi>vra, Xeyovrm. Some MSS. have 

uTTijy'yiP^Oi} ecvTav, but the former is found in 70. (Mill.) 

Eng. " And it was told him by certain which said." 



SECT. III. 

Of the Samaritan Versions. 

252. There are three Versions taken notice of, 
which were made directly from the Samaritan Penta- 
teuch. 

Ken. Diss. 2. c. 1. p. £9, &c. Walton, Prol. 11. § 20. 

25S. One of them is in the Samaritan character, and 
in their common language, reckoned very ancient, and 
made on account of their having lost the knowledge of 
the Hebrew. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 1, 17. Walton, Prol. 5. § 4. and Prol. II. 
§ 20. Brett, ib. 

254. It is very literal and exact, but incorrectly 
rendered in the Latin version of it published in the 
Polyglot. 

Simon, ib. c, 17. Walton, Prol. 11. ib. 



SAMARITAN VERSIONS. 79 

255. It generally agrees with the Samaritan text, 
where this differs from the Hebrew ; and thus confirms 
the antiquity of its readings. 

Simon, ib. 

256. But, it differs from that text in some places, 
either by the translator's mistake of the sense, or where 
a corruption has crept into the one or the other ; and, 
by a collation of the MSS. of it, it might be rendered 
more perfect. 

Simon, ib. 

257. There is likewise a version from the Samaritan 
Pentateuch, into the Arabic language, some copies of 
which are written in the Arabic character, and others 
in the Samaritan, but little known. 

Simon, ib. Walton, ib. § 21. 

258. There was a Greek version from the same 
Pentateuch, esteemed very ancient, of which only a few 
fragments remain, in quotations of the Fathers ; and, 
from these it appears to have been literal and exact, 
and to have concurred with the 70, in many readings. 

Simon, ib. c. 9. Ken. ib. Walton, ib. § 22. 

259. The other versions peculiar to the Old Testa- 
ment, are the modern Jewish versions ; the principal 
of which are, by R. Saadias Gaon, and an African 
Jew, into Arabic ; some, into modern Greek ; one, into 
Spanish, and one, into Persic. 

Simon, ib, c. 19. Walton, Prol. 14. § 15, 16. 



80 J.ATIN VERSIONS, 



SECT. IV. 

Of the Latin Versions, 

260. The other class of Versions, is of such as ex- 
tend both to the Old Testament and the New ; at least, 
being made by Christians, do not purposely exclude 
either ; and, these being ancient, or modern, we shall 
begin with the former, and, among them, wdth the 
Latin Versions. 

261 . That the Scriptures might be understood by 
all Christians, there were very early versions of them, 
probably many, into the Latin tongue ; those of the 
New Testament, immediately from the Greek original ; 
but, those of the old Testament, from the Version of 
the 70. 

Simon, V. T, 1. 2 c. 11. N. T. t. 2. c. S-^Q. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 
434. Michael. § 61, 62. W^alton, Prol. 5. § 5. Prol. 10. § 1. 
Brett, ib. Beausobre, Intr. Marsh's Michael, ch. 7. sect. 
21, 22, 23, 24, 25. 

262. There was one Latin Version, of highest au- 
thority, and most generally received, called the Old, 
the Italic, or the Vulgate ; written probably in the first 
century ; a considerable part of which remains, and 
might be collected. 

Walton, Prol. 9. § 31, 32. Prol. 10. § 1. Beausobre, ib. 
Macknight, ib. Gen. Pref. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 23. 

263. This Version, being extremely literal, is well 
fitted for pointing out what were the readings in the 



LATIN VEllSIONS. 81 

Greek copies ; and, by reason of its antiquity, it be- 
stows great authority on such readings as it proves to 
have then taken place. 

264. By its being often transcribed, many mistakes 
crept into the Italic version ; other versions were mixt 
with it ; and, in particular, expressions were interpolat- 
ed from parallel places, and glosses taken from the 
margin into the text ; for which reason, wherever it 
contains any thing additional to the Greek, it is justly 
suspicious. 

Simon, ib. Michael. § 63, 64. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 8. Brett, 
ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 26. 

265. To remedy the confusion into which it had 
gradually fallen, Jerome corrected it ; but afterwards 
made a new version of the Old Testament from the 70 ; 
and, not satisfied with this, he made, likewise, a version 
of it, from the Hebrew, to which, however, he did not 
always scrupulously adhere. 

Simon, V. T. ib. c. U, 12. Michael. § 65. Ken. Diss. Gen. 
§ 8, 84, 1, 92. Walton, Prol. 5. § 5. Prol. 10. § 1 -- 5. Brett, 
ib. Beausobre, ib. Macknight, ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. 
sect. 28. 

266. This last version shews that some variations 
had crept into the Hebrew copies, since the time when 

i the 70 version was made. 

267. Though Jerome's new version was at first dis- 
approved by some, it soon came (except the Psalms, 
his former version of which was still retained) to be 
universally adopted and used ; and obtained the name 
of the Vulgate. 

11 



82 LATIN VERSIONS. 

Simon, V. T. ib. c. 7, 11. N. T. t. 2 c. 8, 9. Michael. § 66. 
Walton, Prol. 5. § 5. Prol. 10. § 7, 8. Brett, ib. Beau- 
sobre, ib. 

268. The copies of the Vulgate version, having be- 
come very different from one another, and corrupted in 
many places, were several times revised ; and several 
successive editions of it, corrected from MSS., have 
been published. 

Simon, N. T.ib. Michael, ib. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 12, 28, 92, 107. 
Walton, Prol. 10. § 9. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 29. 

269. The Vulgate, in its present state, being a 
mixture of the old Italic version, and that of Jerome, 
points out the state of the original text, partly in the 
first, and partly in the fourth century ; and it gives 
great authority to those readings which it clearly indi- 
cates ; and contains several which are preferable to the 
present readings, and supported by some of the best 
and oldest MSS. 

Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 27. 

Jer. li. 19. " He is the former of all things, and the rod of his 

inheritance." Heb. absurd. — " And Israel is the rod," &c. 

Vulg. Chald. 23 MSS. Jer. x. 16. supplied in Eng. 
Ken. in loc. Diss. 2. p. 439. Diss. Gen. § 47. 

270. The vulgate is not inspired, nor infallible ; 
but it is, in general, skilful and faithful, and often 
gives the sense of Scripture better than more modern 
versions. 

Walton, Prol. 10. § 6, 10, 11. Marsh's Michael, ib. 



SYRIAC VERSIONS. 



85 



SECT. V. 

Of the Syriac Versions, 

271. There is a Sjriac version of the Old Testa- 
ment, from the Greek of the 70, part of which only 
has been published ; which is ancient, and serves prin- 
cipally to shew the state of the Greek copy, at the 
time when it was made. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 2, c. 15. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 88. Walton, Prol. 
13. §8,17. 

272. But there is, likewise, a Syriac version of the 
Old Testament, from the Hebrew, as well as of the 
New Testament, from the Greek ; probably made in 
the first century. 

Simon, V. T. ib. N. T. t. 2. Pocock. Not. in Port. Mos. c. 1, 
Michael. § 47. Walton, Prol. 13. § 8, 15. Brett, ib. Mack- 
night, ib. Gen. Pref. Marsh's Michael, ch. 7. sect. 4. 
6, 7, 8. 

273. Many MSS. of this version are known ; there 
have been several editions of it, and some translations 
from it. 

Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 88, 89. n. b. Walton, Prol. 13. 
§ 8. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 2, 3. 

274. The Syriac version omits the Hebrew titles of 
the Psalms, and inserts others expressive of their sup- 
posed subjects ; and it contains not 2 Peter, 2 and 3 
John, nor Jude. 



84 SYftlAC VERSIONS. 

Simon, V. T. ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 2. 

Psal. 1. "Of the manner of living according to the nine beati- 
tudes mentioned by Matthew." 

Psal. ii. " Concerning the calling of the nations, and the suffer- 
ings of Christ." 

Psal. iii. " Concerning future happiness." 

275. The Sjriac version being very literal, ascer- 
tains clearly the readings which it followed ; by reason 
of its antiquity, it gives great authority to these read- 
ings ; and it has preserved some which appear to be 
genuine. 

Walton, Prol. 13, § 19, Marsh's Michael ib. sect. 9. 

2 Sam. XV. 7. " After forty years Absalom said." From v\^hat ? 
— Syr. "four." supported by Vulg. in several MSS. and 
Sixtus's edit, of Joseph. Ant. 7. 9. Grot, in loc. 
Ken. Diss. 2. p. 357. Diss. Gen § 31. p. 46, n. 

Prov. xxvi. 4, 5. "Ansvi^er not a fool according to his folly, 
lest thou also be like unto him. Answer a fool according to 
his folly, lest he be wise in his own conceit.'* Contradic- 
tory — no reason — Syr. " According to thine own wisdom,^^ 
So Chald. inSlK3 repeated from the preceding line. 
Ken. ib. p. 359. 

276. The Syriac version often agrees wdth the 70, 
where it differs from the present Hebrew ; not by 
having been taken from it ; but because the MSS. used 
for both these versions agreed ; and their concurrence 
gives great authority to a reading followed by them. 

Simon, V. T. ib. 

277. In the New Testament, the Syriac version 
often agrees with the old Italic, but was not taken from 
it, for they differ both in readings, and in renderings. 

Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 5. 



SYRIAC VERSIONS. 85 

278. The coincidence, therefore, of the Syriac and 
the Italic versions, in any reading, has arisen from their 
having been made from MSS. of the same age ; and 
their great antiquity will generally entitle that reading 
to the preference. 

279. Besides these ancient versions, there are oth- 
ers into Syriac, more modern, of the fifth and seventh 
centuries ; but they are less valuable and useful. 



SECT. VI. 

Of the other Ancient Versions. 

280. The Egyptian Christians, called Copts, had 
an ancient version of the Scriptures, supposed to have 
been made about the time of the Council of Nice, into 
the Coptic language, then vernacular to them, which 
was a mixture of the old Egyptian language, and the 
Greek. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 16. N. T. t. 2. Michael. § 5S. 
Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 13. 

281. There are said to be two versions in this lan- 
guage extant ; one, known in Europe, in which the 
Old Testament is thought to have been translated im- 
mediately from the 70, and of which the New Testa- 
ment has been published; the other, used by the 
Jacobite and Melchite Christians; but which of 
them is the ancient version is uncertain. 

Simon, ib. Michael, ib. 



86 ANCIENT VERSIONS. 

282. The Coptic versions are of some use in criti- 
cism ; and are considerable, as having given rise to 
the Arabic versions, when this language came into 
common use in Egypt. 

Simon, ib. 

283. There are many Arabic versions of the Scip- 
tures, made by Christians ; but they are all posterior 
to the time of Mahomet ; and were probably finished 
in the tenth, or the eleventh century. 

Simon, V.T. c. 16. N. T. t. 2. Michael. § 53—55. Ken. 
Diss. 2. p. 453. Diss. Gen. § 44. Walton, Prol. 14. § 17—23. 
Beausobre, ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. § 15, 16. 

284. They are unequal, inaccurate, and often 
paraphrastical. 

Simon, ib. 

285. It is generally supposed, that the Arabic ver- 
sions were taken, in the Old Testamenl^ from the 
Greek of the 70, or from the Syriac translations of it; 
and, so far as they were so, they show the readings of 
these at the time when they were taken ; and either 
confirm their present readings, or preserve such as 
have since been altered in these. 

Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 44. 

Psal. xviii. 1 3. Arab, wants " hailstones and coals of fire." 
So 4 Heb. MSS. 2 Sam. xxii. 14. 70. 
Ken. Diss. Gen. ib. 
Psal. Ixviii. 18. " Thou hast ^irm gifts to men." Arab, old 
MSS. of TO. Sjr. Ital. Eph. iv. 8. 
Ken. ib. § 44, 77. 

286. Some of the Arabic versions, or some parts of 
them, appear not to have been taken from these other 



ANCIENT VERSIONS. 87 

versions, but immediately from the Hebrew ; for they 
contain readings different from theirs, but conformable 
to Hebrew copies. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. § 44. 

1 Kings xiii. 20. " As they sat at the table— (piska) — the 

word of the Lord came unto the prophet." Arab, alone 

supplies, " and did eat." 
Ken. Diss. 1. p. 477. 
Chap. xxii. 19. — *' Hear thou the word of the Lord." Heb. 

70. Sjr. " Hear ye" (Jehoshaphat and Ahab.) Arab. 

7 Heb. MSS. 
Ezek. xxxvii. 4. "Again he said unto me." Arab, adds, 

" Son of Man." So 6 MSS. Chald. v. 3, 9, 11, &c. 

287. The Arabic versions of the New Testament 
are thought to be made, from the Greek, in the Gos- 
pels ; and from the Syriac, in the Epistles. 

288. Of the Arabic versions, there are many MSS. 
differing much from one another ; and different edi- 
tions ; but some of them altered according to the 
Vulgate. 

Walton, Prol. 14. § 18—23. 

m 

289. There was an early version of the Scriptures 
into the Ethiopic, or the language of the Abyssinians ; 
and, as one only is known, this is probably the same 
which has been oftener than once published, and 
which agrees much with the Alexandrian MS. 

Chrjsost. Walton, Prol. 15. § 10, 12. Beausobre, Introd. 
Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 17. 

290. The Ethiopic version of the Old Testament 
was not taken from the Hebrew, but closely follows 



88 Ancient versions. 

the 70; that of the New is immediately from the 
Greek ; and better in the Gospels, than in the Epistles. 
Simon, V. T. I. 2. c. 16. N. T. t. 2. Houbig. Prol. Michael. 
§56. Walton, ib. § 10, 11. 

291. This version has some peculiar readings ; many 
of them erroneous ; but, where it appears to be exact, 
its antiquity gives it considerable authority. 

Walton, ib. § 12. 

292. The Armenians are said to have made a ver- 
sion of the Scriptures, into their own language, in the 
fourth century, immediately from the Syriac ; but 
they afterwards translated the New Testament from 
the original Greek. 

Simon, V. T. ib. N. T. ib. Michael. § 57. Beausobre, ib. 
Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 18, 19. 

293. In the thirteenth century, the ancient Arme- 
nian version was altered in some places, according to 
the Vulgate ; with these alterations the subsequent 
MSS. were written ; and, when it was published, some 
other alterations, conformable to the Vulgate, were 
adopted ; but it «till retains some of its old readings. 

Simon, ib. Michael. § 58. Beausobre, ib. 
Matt, xxvii. 16,17. "Jesus Barabbas." singular; but meji- 
tioned as a common reading by Origen, Horn. 35. on Matt. 

294. If the Persians had anciently a version of the 
Scriptures into their language, it is probably^ lost; 
for all the Persic versions known to us, are reckoned 
modern- 
Simon, V. T. c. 16. N. T. t. 2. c. 17. Michael. § 59. Walton, 

ProL 16. § 6. Beausobre, ib. 



MODERN VERSIONS. 89 

295. Two Persic versions have been published, 
both of which appear to have been taken from the 
Syriac. 

Jid. ib. Walton, ib. § T, 8, 9. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 20. 

296, It is said, however, that there are several MSS. 
of the Persic version, considerably different from both 
these editions; and that another version, perhaps 
more ancient than either, is used by the Persians in 
their public service. 



SECT. VII. 

Of Modern Versions. 

296. The several nations in the Western Church 
had versions of the Scriptures into their vernacular 
languages, which were taken immediately from the 
Vulgate ; but most of them are now lost. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c< 1. 22. Johnson, Histor. Account. 

297. There are, however, several Anglo-Saxon ver- 
sions of the Bible, or of parts of it, in MSS., and of 
which the Gospels have bee*i published ; and appear 
to be taken from the old Italic. 

Michael. § 72. Johnson, ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 38. 

298. The version of the four Gospels, called Codex 
Argenteus, was generally supposed to be a part of the 
Gothic version of Ulphilas ; but is affirmed by those 
who have examined it most carefully, to be an old 
Frankish version, made, after the middle of the sixth 
century, immediately from the Greek, scrupulously 

12 



90 MODERN VERSIONS. 

literal, and therefore fit for shewing the readings of the 

copies used for it. 

Michael. § 68, &c. Beausobre, Intr. Marsh's Michael, ib. 
sect. 31, &c. 

299. The more modern versions are, either into 
Latin, or into the vernacular languages ; and both are 
made either by Papists or by Protestants. 

Simon, V. T. c. 1, 20. 

SOO. Most of the Latin versions by Papists, are 
made according to the present Masoretic text, the 
modern punctuation, and the interpretations of the 
Rabbins ; aim at being extremely literal ; and, by this 
means, are rude, barbarous, and often obscure ; as 
those of the Old Testament by Pagninus, Arias Mon- 
tanus, Malvenda, Cajetan. 

Simon, ib. Brett, ib. Beausobre, ib. 

801. Others of them are only editions of the Vul- 
gate, with some corrections, as Clarius's, &:c. 

302. Houbigant has given a new version of the Old 
Testament, not according to the present Hebrew, but 
according to the text, as he thought it should be cor- 
rected by MSS.^ ancient versions, and critical con- 
jectures. 

303. Among Protestants, Munster gave a Latin 
version of the Old Testament, from the Hebrew, 
according to the punctuation and interpretation of the 
Rabbins. 

304. Leo Juda began another, which was finished 
by Bibliander, likew ise from the Hebrew ; rather free 



MODERN VERSIONS. 91 

than literal ; and the New Testament was added by 
others. 

Simon, V. T. ib. Brett, ib. Beausobre, ib. 

305. Castalio gave a version of the Bible, from the 
originals, without adhering scrupulously to the receiv- 
ed reading, in which he studied, chiefly, to express the 
sense in elegant and classical Latin. 

306. Junius and Tremellius gave a version of the 
Old Testament, exactly according to the received text, 
and punctuation, and were peculiar in expressing the 
article by demonstrative pronouns. 

307. There are several versions, likewise, of the 
New Testament, from Greek into Latin, by Protes- 
tants ; as Beza's, which has the peculiarity of render- 
ing the article by demonstrative pronouns, but is gen- 
erally and highly esteemed. 

Walton, Prol. 4. Beausobre, ib. Macknight, ib. 

308. Some Protestants have satisfied themselves 
with only correcting the Vulgate version, according to 
the originals ; as the Osianders. 

Brett, ib. 

309. In consequence of the Reformation from 
Popery, the original Scriptures were translated into 
most of the modern languages of Europe ; first, by 
Luther, into German, whose version, though not 
scrupulously literal, is sufficiently accurate ; was, 
oftener than once, revised and corrected by himself, as 
well as by others since ; and has been translated into 
the Swedish, Danish, and other northern languages ; 



92 MODERN VERSIONS. 

next, by Leo Juda ; likewise into German, for the 
use of the Zuinglians. 
Simon, V. T. 1. t, c. 1, 23. 

310. The Scriptures were translated into French, 
at Geneva, by Olivetanus ; the preferable renderings in 
the text, and others, particularly from the 70, in the 
margin. This version was corrected, chiefly as to the 
language, by Calvin ; and, again, by Bertram, Beza, 
and others ; and has, since, from time to time, under- 
gone some alterations of the same sort. 

Simon, ib. c. 1, 24. 

311. By order of the Synod of Dordt, a version 
was made into the Dutch language, in place of 
Luther's, which had been used till then ; and well 
executed by the learned men who undertook it. 

Simon, ib, c. 23. 

312. There are two versions of the Old Testament 
into Spanish, in which Pagnin is chiefly followed. 

Simon, ib. ^ 

313. Diodati made a version into Italian, (after- 
wards translated into French) which follows the 70, in 
many places where he thought the Hebrew corrupted ; 
and is free, perspicuous, and highly esteemed. 

Simon, ib. 

314. There have been several English versions of 
the Scriptures ; Wickliff's ; TyndaPs ; Coverdale's ; 
the Bishops' Bible ; the Geneva Bible ; our present 
version, the alterations of the later of which, from the 
earlier, have not always been for the better ; all of 



DISTINCTIONS OF VERSIONS. 93 

thern, except the first, taken from the originals ; none 
of them, however, particularly not our present version, 
adhering servilely to the common Masoretic reading of 
the Old Testament, but, rendering according to the 
emendations which were judged necessary, especially 
such as are suggested by the ancient versions. 

Simon, ib. c, 1, 23. Ken. Diss. Gen. §89. note 108. Beau- 
sobre, ib. Johnson's Histor. Account. Mack night, ib. 

315. In opposition to the vernacular versions of 
Protestants, Popish versions have been made into 
several languages, generally from the Vulgate, but not 
very accurate. 

Simon, ib. c. 22. 

316. Besides versions peculiar to the Old Testa- 
ment, and versions extending to the whole Scriptures, 
there is a third class, those of particular books. 



SECT. YIII. 

Distinctions of Versions, 

317. In recollecting the account which has been 
given of the versions of Scripture, it readily occurs, 
that they are distinguishable into different classes, and 
that these several classes are useful, in different ways, 
and different degrees. 

318. Versions are either ancient or modern. The 
ancient may serve both for ascertaining the true read- 
ing, and for interpreting the sense ; the modern can 
answer only the latter of these pm*poses. 



^4 DISTINCTIONS OF VERSIONS. 

319. Versions are either independent, taken imme- 
diately from the originals ; or derived, rendered from 
another version. 

320. To which of these classes a version belongs, 
may be known either by testimony, or by internal 
marks. Thus, a version shews itself to be derived, 
by copying the errors or peculiarities of another, by 
coinciding with another in very obscure and doubtful 
passages, by mistaken renderings, accountable only 
from a natural misconception of the language of 
another. 

321. Independent versions alone are directly useful 
for ascertaining the readings of the original ; derived 
versions can shew only the ancient reading of the ver- 
sion from which they were take^i ; but may, by pre- 
serving it, contribute indirectly to the emendation of 
the original. 

322. Versions are either literal, expressing the 
original, word for word : or free, intended to give 
the sense clearly, without adhering scrupulously to 
the words. 

323. Literal versions show the readings of the 
copies from which they were taken ; and they are the 
fittest for public use, as being simplest, most perma- 
nently intelligible, and not unduly limiting the sense. 

Simon, passim. Michael. § 73. 

324. A version is too literal, when it retains idioms 
which, in the language of the version, convey a sense 
totally different from that of the original. 



USE OF VERSIONS. 96 

325. But, to be truly literal, a version should retain 
the turn of expression of the original, as far as it is at 
all consistent with the language of that version ; peculiar 
idioms, it should render in words expressive of their 
sense ; ambiguous words or phrases, it should trans- 
late, if possible, by such as are equally ambiguous ; it 
should neither unnecessarily depart from the order of 
words in the original, nor adhere to it, in cases where 
it would render the sense equivocal ; it should, as far 
as possible, preserve the manner and spirit of the 
original. 

326. Free versions always determine the original to 
one certain sense, rendering obscure expressions by such 
as are clear, and ambiguous expressions by words 
answering only to one of their significations. Thej 
are, thus, a sort of commentary ; but give only the 
interpretation, without the reasons of it. 



SECT. IX. 

Of the Use of Versions for determining readings. 

327. The original Hebrew of the Old Testament, 
and Greek of the New, are the fountains and standards, 
by which all versions ought to be examined ; but it 
follows not from this, that versions may not be of use, 
for determining the true reading, and of authority, for 
establishing a reading different from that which is now 
commonly received. 

W^alton, Prol. 6. § 8. Prol. 7. Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. S. 

Ken. Diss. 2. p. 323. Diss. Gen. § 44 — i9, 63, 136. Pfaff. cap. 
12. can. 2, 



96 USE OF VERSIONS. 

328. To allow this authority to versions, is not to 
prefer a copy to the original ; it is only to collect from 
them, what was the reading in the MSS. of the original 
from which they were taken ; and, because these were 
more ancient and more correct than any which we now 
have, to prefer that reading to what is found in later 
and less correct transcripts. 

329. But in applying versions to this purpose, 
several cautions are necessary, for our determining 
how the translators really read. 

330. The versions have undergone alterations and 
corruptions by transcribers, even more than the origi- 
nals. Before adopting, therefore, a reading from a 
version, we must be certain that it is in that place 
uncorrupted ; and, for this purpose, a correction of the 
several ancient versions, by a collation of all the 
known copies of them, would be of great importance. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 3. c. 1. 

331. It is only when it appears that translators 
understood the orignal, and rendered justly from it, that 
their version can give authority to a particular reading. 

332. From their adding or omitting words, agree- 
ably to the genius of the language in which they wrote, 
it cannot be inferred, that they found in their copies 
words answering to these. 

Michael. § 29. 

333. When they give a sense equivalent to that of 
the present copies of the original, though not literal, 
we ought not to presume that they read differently. 

Michael, ib. Walton, Prol. 6. § 11. 



USE OF VERSIONS. 97 

334. Sometimes, even when they seem to give the 
sense of a reading different from the present, they yet 
had the same reading, but affixed to the word another 
signification ; and, therefore, in order to ascertain the 
readings followed by them, an accurate knowledge of 
the original languages, in their full extent, is highly 
needful. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 5. 

Psal. xxii. title, vh'ii, commonlj "kind." 70. (t^rtXvi^iq 
"defence, assistance." But they read not differently, for 
thej render 'm''/''« ver. 19. Bo3j^e/««y. 

Simon, ib. c, 7. 

SSb, But there are cases in which it is clear that the 
authors of the ancient versions had readings in the 
original different from the present, and what these 
readings were ; as, when the expression in both is per- 
fectly definite, or, when the version suits a word very 
similar to the present ; and, in these cases, both read- 
ings ought to be fairly compared and examined, and 
that prefeiVed which is on the whole best supported. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 11. 1. 2. c. 5. Houbig. Prol. Walton, ib. 
§ 9, 10. 

Gen. ii. 2. " On the seventh day God ended his work.'' Heb. 
ChalB.— «si^f/i,"70. «am. Syr. 

Simon, ib. Houbig. ib, & in loc. Cleric, in loc. 

'6^Q, A reading, certainly expressed in an ancient 
version, is of the same authority as if it had been found 
in a MS. of the age when that version was made ; and 
consequently, of greater authority than if found in any 
single MS. now extant ; and that in proportion to the 
superior antiquity of the version. 
13 



98* 



USE OP VERSIONS, 



337. Though it would seem that no single version 
can have sufficient authority to establish a reading in 
opposition to the copies of the original, and the other 
versions, jet, in some very particular cases, it may have 
even this authority ; as, for instance, when there is 
evidence that the original and the other versions have 
been corrupted in that place. 

338. In like manner, if the present reading of the 
original be absurd, or yield no sense, a single version 
may give probability to another reading, especially 
when from it the present reading might have naturally 
arisen. 

339. The reading of a single ancient version may 
receive considerable weight, from its being suitable to 
the sense, the connexion, or parallel places. 

Num. xxii. 22. *'And God's anger was kindled because he 

^vent, and the angel of" the Lord stood," &c. 

Arab, inserts " from greediness," according to 2 i*eter ii. 
15. SomeHeb.MSS. 

Ken. in loc. & Diss. Gen. § 44, 165. 
Prov. xix. 1. *' Better is the poor that v/alketh in his integrity, 
than he that is perverse in his lips, and is a/oo/." No anti- 
thesis in poor and fool, ivalketh and lips, no sentiment. 
Syr. " ways, thougli he be rlcJiy This gives a proper sense. 
VD'M "ways,^^ in above 30 MSS. r^>]; '' richP Collect. 
var. read. (Ken. Diss. 2. p. 286.) Vulg. " dives et insipiens.". 
Confirmed by Prov. xxviii. 6. 

Houbig. in loc. Ken. in loc. & Diss. 1. p. 509. Diss. 2. 
p. 287. Diss. Gen. § 179. 

540. The concurrence of several independent ancient 
versions in a reading, renders it highly probable ; as it 



USE OF VERSIONS. '99 

shews the concurrence of at least as many very ancient 
MSS. perhaps of different ages and countries. 

341. The concurrence of all the ancient versions in 
a reading is sufficient for establishing it, though it 
should not be found in any MSS. now extant ; for it 
shews that it took place in many MSS. so ancient, that 
a few of them ought to outweigh a great number of 
such as are vastly more modern. 

34'2. If a reading indicated by any, by several, or 
by all the ancient versions, is likewise found in some 
MSS. still extant, this will add to the authority of such 
reading, proportionably to the number or antiquity of 
the MSS., provided that neither have these been 
altered in conformity to the versions, nor the versions 
in conformity to them. 

343. If, in the books of Moses, the reading follow- 
ed by ancient versions be likewise found in the Sama- 
ritan Pentateuch, this makes a great addition to tlie 
evidence which they would have otherwise had, and 
generally renders them certain. 

344. When all the copies of the original, and all the 
versions, agree in a reading, it is certainly the true 
one ; and, as that is, in general, the case, we have 
absolute assurance of the authenticity and purity of the 
Scriptures in general, greater assurance than Avitli 
^•egard to any other book whateveFo 



i^ 



100 USE OF VERSIONS^ 

SECT. X. 
Of the Use of Versions for Interpretation, 

345. Versions contribute much to the interpre- 
tation of Scripture. 

S^Q. It is only by means of versions, that thej 
who are ignorant of the original languages can at all 
learn what the Scripture contains; and every ver- 
sion, so far as it is just, conveys the sense of Scripture 
to those who understand the language in which it is 
written. 

347. Though they who have the means of under- 
standing the originals, especially the teachers of reli- 
gion, ought not to satisfy themselves with versions, 
yet there is scarcely any version which does not 
express the sense of Scripture, so far as it is abso- 
lutely necessary to be known by those, who have no 
other means of learning it. 

348. Versions give great assistance for understand- 
ing the sense of Scripture, even to those who are 
acquainted with the originals, wherever the translators 
were more skilful in these languages, or bestowed 
greater attention, or had superior advantages of any 
kind. 

349. As some versions are made with greater skill 
and exactness than others, and some parts of every 
version, with greater than other parts of it ; the com- 



USE OF VEllSIONS. • 101 

parison of different versions, and the selection of the 
preferable renderings from them all, would contribute 
very much to our obtaining the true sense of Scripture. 

350. Neither the ancient versions, nor the modern, 
ought to be preferred absolutely, and in all cases ; for 
the deviations of later translators from the renderings 
of the earlier, are sometimes to the better, and some- 
times 10 the worse. 

351. Though it be certain, that the authors of the 
ancient versions often followed readings different from 
those in the present text ; yet, in many cases, we 
ought to conclude, that they only rendered the reading 
which we still have, in a sense not affixed to it by the 
moderns ; as, when they frequently give the same 
rendering of the same word, or, when that word has 
still, in any of the kindred languages, the same signifi- 
cation which they assign to it. 

Houbig Prol. c. 3. a, 4. 

352. Significations of words, in this manner pointed 
out by the ancient versions, are significations which 
we may be sure that the words really had ; and we 
may, without scruple, prefer them to the more modern 
and common renderings, when the sense or other cir- 
cumstances give countenance to them. 

353. The ancient versions, being the works of men 
who had several advantages above the moderns for 
understanding the original languages, and ihe phraseol- 
ogy of Scripture ; and those of the Old Testament, in 
particular, being one of the principal means by which 



102 



USE OF VERSIONS, 



the knowledge of the Hebrew was recovered, and, by 
more careful attention to which, it might be rendered 
still more perfect ; there can be no doubt but they gener- 
ally give us the true sense of Scripture, and that often 
in places where we could scarcely have discovered it 
by any other means. 

Pocock, Porta Mosis, c, 1. Miclmcl, § 46. 

354. That a version may exhibit the true sense of 
Scripture, it must translate it as it really lies, without 
regard to any consequences which may seem to follow 
from a genuine translation, or to the prejudices or 
peculiar tenets of the translator ; but very few versions 
are perfectly unexceptionable in this respect. 

355. A version of the Scriptures might be made, 
which would exhibit the sense of Scripture more truly 
and accurately than any now extant, though it would 
be attended with great difficulties ; and none can, per- 
haps, be expected absolutely unexceptionable. 

356. Such a version should not scrupulously adhere 
to the text, as commonly received, but follow^ those 
readings which appear to be most genuine ; and, for 
this purpose, it is prerequisite to our obtaining such a 
version, that the preferable readings should be every 
w^here ascertained, by a collation of the copies, not 
only of the original, but also of the several ancient 
versions ; and it would be proper that, when a reading 
is found clearly preferable, it should be translated ; 
but, when the true reading is doubtful, the commonly 
received one should be rendered in the text ; and that, 
in both cascsj the renderings of all the other readings 



USE OF VERSIONS. 103 

which have any degree of plausibility, should be 
marked in the margin. 
Simon, V.T. 1. 3. c. 1. 

357. In such a version, that meaning of the orig- 
inal words should be given in every place, which 
appears to be in that place most proper ; in determin- 
ing which, the translator should not confine himself to 
those significations of words which have been adopted 
by the Rabbins, and from them by modern lexicog- 
raphers ; but should attend to all the significations 
which either kindred languages or ancient versions 
shew to have really belonged to the words ; and, while 
the text expresses what appears to be the genuine 
translation of every passage, the different senses of 
which the w^ord is capable, especially those which it 
clearly has in other places, should be marked in the 
margin, if they can be at all applicable in that passage. 

Simon, ib. c. 2. 

358. Such idioms of the original languages as are 
ambiguous, should be either retained in the version, or 
rendered in words capable of the same ambiguity ; but, 
idioms which have a clear and precise import, should 
not be copied, but expressed in that form of words 
which, in the language into which the version is made, 
express that import with greatest propriety and exact- 
ness. 

359. A version of the Scripture should be varied, so 
as to express the spirit and manner of the several parts 
of it. This wiil be most effectually done, not by ser- 
vilely copying the style of the original, but by exhib- 



104 USE OF VERSIONS. 

king the several sentiments and affections painted by 
it, in those terms which one possessed by the same 
sentiments and affections, would naturally use for 
expressing them, in the language of the version ; and, 
by preserving the same species of style which, accord- 
ing to the usage of that language, comes nearest to the 
style of the original. 
Lowth's Isaiah, Prelim. Diss. p. 35, &c. 

360. So many things being prerequisite to a perfect 
version of the Scriptures, all of which have not been 
as yet even attempted, it must be long before a perfect 
version can be expected ; and, indeed, the difficulties 
are so great, particularly, in every where determining 
the best reading and the true sense, that, with all the 
means which we have of surmounting them, a version 
of the whole Scripture, absolutely perfect, can scarcely, 
perhaps, be at all expected ; but every approach to it 
is highly desirable and important. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 3. c. 1— 4. 



KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 105 



CHAP. V. 

The Circumstances relating to the Books of 
Scripture. 

361. There are several circumstances relating to 
the books of Scripture, knowledge of which is, in 
some degree or other, useful in criticism ; the species 
of composition, the author, the time, the occasion of 
writing, the design of the book, its plan, and the con- 
nexion of the parts. 

Glass. Philol. Sacr. 1. 2. p. 2, § 2. 

362. When these circumstances cannot be ascertain- 
ed, as in some cases they are not easily or certainly de- 
terminable, it necessarily occasions some measure of 
obscurity or ambiguity. 

SQS. But, in many cases, these several circumstan- 
ces may be determined with certainty, or with consid- 
erable probability ; either externally, by testimony ; 
or, internally, from hints and indications in the books 
themselves ; and, wherever they can, they throw light, 
some more, some less, upon the Scriptures. 



BECT. I. 

Of the Kinds of Composition in Scripture. 

364. The Scripture consists of many books, on dif- 
ferent subjects, belonging to different species of compo- 
14 



106 KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 

sition, and written in different manners ; each of which 
has its peculiar structure and rules ; and these must be 
attended to, and understood, in order to our entering 
thoroughly into either its sense or its beauties. 

365. In respect of their subjects, the books of Scrip- 
ture are historical, didactical, devotional or prophetical ; 
and, in respect of their manner of composition, either 
prosaical or poetical. 

f S66, All the books of the New Testament, and all 
the historical books of the Old, are written in prose ; 
the rest of the Old Testament is, in general, poetical. 

367. The history of the Bible is, properly, sacred 
history ; it is the history of the .world, considered pre- 
cisely as God's world, as wholly governed by him ; 
and is directly calculated for unfolding the designs of 
his providence. 

Butler's Anal. p. 2. 

368. The prevailing character of the Scripture his- 
tory is simplicity. 

369. The whole of Scripture history is carried on 
in a dramatic manner, introducing persons as speaking 
and conferring; which has great simplicity, and a 
great effect in expressing sentiments, suited to partic- 
ular characters, whether good or bad. 

Kaimes's Sketches, 5. 2. 

370. All the didactic books of the New Testament 
are in prose, and in the epistolary form ; which occa- 
sions several peculiarities, necessary to be attended to, 



KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 107 

for understanding them ; and they consist, almost 
wholly, of argumentation and morality. 

371. All the didactical and devotional books of the 
Old Testament, with some hymns and songs, inter- 
spersed in the other books, are generally acknowledged 
to be poetical ; though the precise nature and rules of 
Hebrew metre cannot now be accurately defined. 

372. The prophetical parts of the New Testament 
are certainly in prose ; and it has been the general 
opinion, that the prophetical books of the Old Testa- 
ment are likewise in prose ; but, that these are, for 
the most part, though not the whole of them, really 
poetical, seems now to be proved with sufficient evi- 
dence, particularly from the conformity of their struc- 
ture, to that of the confessedly poetical books, in every 
essential circumstance. 

Lowth, Poes. Hebr. praelect. 18, 19. Prel. Diss. p. 2, &c. 
Herder's Dialogues on Hebrew Poetry. 

373. The true pronunciation of the Hebrew lan- 
guage having been lost for many ages, the precise na- 
ture of its poetry cannot now be discovered ; but it 
seems plainly to be characterised by periods of corres- 
pondent members, one synonymous with,^ amplifying,^ 
or contrasted to, another ; ^ and similar in their length 
and structure ; all which appears even in a literal ver- 
sion. 

Lowth, Prel. Diss. p. 11, &c. Herder, ib. 

^ Psal, ii. 1. — " Why do the heathen rage. 

And the people imagine a vain thing ? 
3. Let us break their bands asunder, 



108 KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 

And cast away their cords from us. 
2 Psal. iii. 3. — But thou, Lord, art a shield for me ; 

My glory and the lifter up of my head. 
^ Prov. X. 1. — A wise son maketh a glad father; 

But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother." 

374. The Hebrew poetry is remarkable for concise- 
ness ; the sentences are short, no superfluous words. 

375. It is, likewise, highly figurative, and abounds 
with the noblest and most beautiful metaphors and 
comparisons, derived from a variety of sources ; pro- 
sopopeias ; bold transitions ; abrupt change of per- 
sons ; and, in general, all the acknowledged ornaments 
of discourse. 

376. In consequence of both these qualities, it is 
strong, bold, and nervous. 

377. It is a great beauty in the Hebrew poetry, and 
contributes much to perspicuity, that the same set of 
images are constantly appropriated to the same sub- 
jects. 

Lowth's Isa. ii. 13. 

" Mountains," for states. " Cedars, oaks," potentates, princes. 

" Towers, fortresses," protectors. " Ships," merchants. 

378. The Bible exhibits specimens of almost all 
kinds of poetry ; agreeing in the same general features, 
but with differences suitable to the peculiar nature of 
each ; didactic, in the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and many 
of the Psalms ; elegiac, in Jeremiah's Lamentation, and 
several lesser pieces ; pastoral, in Solomon's Song ; 
and lyric, in hymns, as most of the Psalms, and seve- 



KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 109 

ral interspersed both in the historical and prophetical 
books ; besides Job, the nature of which is disputed. 

379. Besides all these, the Bible contains a species 
of poetry peculiar to itself, the prophetical ; which, 
though perhaps scarcely distinguishable from the others, 
in respect of its poetry, is, in respect of its subject, pre- 
diction, a very peculiar kind of composition ; but, most 
of its peculiarities being such as occasion difficulties, 
they belong, most properly, to the second part. 

380. The structure of the Hebrew poetry sometimes 
serves for detecting a mistake in our present copies, 
and for suggesting or confirming the true reading. 

Lowth, Prel. Diss. p. 37, 40. 

Psal. xxxviii. 19. " Mine enemies lively (a^^n living) they are 

strong ; 

And they that hate me wrongfully are multiplied." 
Lively is not synonymous with wrowgfiti^^— suggests CDJrr, 

without cause. This confirmed from Psal. Ixix. 4. where 

this word is put parallel to y\i/, here used, but where 

there seems to be another mistake. Literally it runs, 
" They are multiplied more than the hairs of my head, that 

hate me without cause; 
They are increased that would destroy me, 
fn'DlfD) mine enemies wrongfully." 
Not parallel — suggests *nD2f D, " more than my looks." So 7 

MSS. 
Lowth, ib. 

381. The structure of the Hebrew poetry may like- 
wise contribute to the interpretation of Scripture, by 
indicating in what sense an obscure or ambiguous word 
ought to be taken in a particular place. 

Lowth, ib. p. 37 — 39. 



no AUTHORS OF BOOKS. 

Isa. xxviii. 14. « Wherefore, hear the word of the Lord, j.e 

scoffers. 
Ye ivlio rule (^Sl^D) this people in Jerusalem." 
The word signifies not only to rule, but to speak parables or sen- 
tentious sayings, which is parallel to scoffers. One of their sayings 
is instanced in ver. 15. 

" We have made a covenant with death. 

And with hell are we at agreement,^* 
So HTH must, from the nature of the poetry, signify here, as 
well as mm V. 18. ; but it does so nowhere else. 
Lowth, ib. Vitringa in loc. 
Ver. 18. « Your covenant with death shall he broken, 
And your agreement with hell shall not stand." 
Either ^33 must here signify to break, which it does nowhere 
else; or, more probably, the true reading is nsn. Chald. 
So Isa. viii. 10. 
Lowth, ib. Houbig. in loc. 



SECT. II. 

Of the Authors of the Books of Scripture. 

382. To know who are the authors of the several 
books of Scripture, is necessary, chiefly for establish- 
ing their authority and inspiration ; in which light it 
belongs to another part of our plan ; but it is, in some 
degree, conducive likewise to our understanding them ; 
and it is in this view only, that it claims our present 
notice. 

383. We are abundantly certain concerning the au- 
thors of most of the books of Scripture, though we be 
ignorant of many particulars about them, which it 
might be desirable or useful to know. 



AUTHORS OF BOOKS. Ill 

384 Though all the authors of Scripture be inspir- 
ed, yet, in regard to their manner of writing, they are 
left to follow each his own genius, turn of thought, and 
mode of expression ; in all which there is great diver- 
sity ; and attention to this will contribute to our read- 
ing their works both with pleasure and with advantage. 

385. An author's peculiar character may sometimes 
contribute to our determining the true reading; for, 
among various readings, equally supported, that ought 
to be preferred, which is agreeable to the author ^s 
style and manner. 

386. But knowledge of the author's history, situa- 
tion, and manner of conceiving and expressing things, 
contributes much more to our entering into his full 
meaning, and is often absolutely necessary for this pur- 
pose. 

387. An author's situation and circumstances will 
sometimes account for his choice of matter, for his omit- 
ting some topics, and enlarging upon others. 

Mark is silent concerning things honourable to Peter, and 
large on his faults. He was his companion, and wrote from, 
his information. 

Lardner's Credibility, Supplem. c. 7. § 5, 8. Jones's 
Method of Canon. P. 3. 

388. In the historical books of scripture, there is 
great uniformity of manner; though, even in these, 
some minute varieties may be discerned, together with 
considerable differences of style. 



112 AUTHORS OF BOOKS. 

389. In the poetical and prophetical books, there is 
very great variety ; every writer having his own char- 
acter and manner very strongly marked. 

Lowth, Sac. Poes. Heb. prselect. 21. Prelim. Diss, to Isaiah, 

Blair, Rhet. lect. 41. 
David various, but excels in the tender. Ibid. 
The writer oi Job highly figurative, and characterised by strength 

of description. 
Isaiah has all the excellences of composition, but is eminent 

for sublimity. Ibid. 
Jeremiah is tender and pathetic. Ibid. , 
Ezekiel is bold, vehement, and ardent, and often enigmatical. 

Ibid. 
Hosea is concise and sententious, lively, but obscure. Ibid. 

and Horsley's Hosea. 
Amos has no very remarkable characteristic. Ibid. 
Micali is concise and lively, often elevated and vehement. Ibid, 
Joel elegant, clear, fluent and figurative. Ibid. 
Nahum is august, bold, and regular. Ibid. 

390. The other parts of Scripture, in which pecu- 
liarities of manner chiefly appear, are the argumenta- 
tive parts. The principal of these are the writings of 
Paul, who was plainly a man eminent for extensive 
views, warmth of imagination^ and quickness of con- 
ception ; and this turn of mind occasions several pecu- 
liarities in his manner, which it is absolutely necessary 
to attend to, in order to our understanding his epistles. 

Locke's Essay on Epistles. Taylor, Pref. to Romans. Mack- 
night on Epistles, Ess. 3. 
Care to guard against exceptions producing long parentheses. 
Rom. ii. 12. connected with v. 16. the intermediate verses a 
parenthesis, guarding against exceptions to both his asser- 
tions in V. 12. 

Locke, Taylor^ Macknight, in loc. 



TIMES OF WRITING. 113 

Carrying on different designs at once. Rom. xiii. 1 — 8. prin- 
cipally *the duty of subjects,' but along with this, * the 
grounds and end of civil government.' lid. Prosecuting 
a design by complicated means. 



SECT. III. 

Of the Times of writing the Books of Scripture, 

39 L The books of Scripture are the works of dif- 
ferent, and very distant, ages ; and each of them bears 
some characters, derived from the age in which it was 
written. 

392. The age, in which ahnost all the books of 
Scripture were written, is easily enough determined. 

393. Though there be great difficulty in ascertain- 
ing the precise date of many of the books of Scripture, 
yet that of several of them may be determined with 
sufficient evidence ; and whenever it can be determin- 
ed, it will shew the beauty of some figure, the force of 
some expression, or the full meaning of some passage. 

394. Hence it has often been mentioned, as what 
would be of considerable use, that the books of Scrip- 
ture be placed, or, at least, read, in the order in which 
they were written. 

395. Knowledge of the time when a book was^ 
written, sometimes shews the reason, and the propriety 
of things said in it. 

15 



114 



TIMES OF WRITING. 



1 Thess. V. 9.7. " I charge {i^Kt^a) you bj the Lord, that this 
Epistle be read unto all the holy brethren." So solemn an 
adjuration seems unnecessary. But this was the first writ- 
ten book of the New Testament ; only the Old Testament 
was publicly read before. It is a charge to read this as an 
inspired book ; a declaration that it is canonical. This was 
proper, and extends to the after books of the apostles. 

Lardner's Credibility, Supplem. c. 12. § 2. c. 25. § 2. 

396. Inattention to, or ignorance of, the real date of 
a book, often occasions mistakes concerning the mean- 
ing of particular passages. 

Lardner, ib. c. 12. 

2 Cor. xi. 25. " Thrice I suffered shipwreck." That mention- 
ed Acts xxvii. not one of these, for it was posterior to his 
writing. 

Lardner, ib. 
1 Cor. XV. S2. " I have fought with beasts at Ephesus." It 
refers not to Demetrius's riot, Acts xix., for that was poste- 
rior to his writing. Probably he had, before this, been really 
exposed to fight with wild beasts, intimated by his saying, 
" after the manner of men," according to a custom of men. 

Benson, Hist, of Christian, b. 3. c. 7. s. 3. Whitby in loc. 

Lightfoot, vol. 1. p. 298. Macknight in loc. 

397. Knowledge of the precise date is peculiarly of 
importance, with respect to the prophecies and the 
epistles. 

398. This know^ledge would often throw^ light on 
several particulars of a prediction ; and is sometimes 
absolutely necessary for ascertaining the event designed, 
and for perceiving the accomplishment, especially when 
it was near. 

399. The true date of a prediction is often sufficient 
for confuting a false application of it, and must be ex- 



OCCASIONS OF BOOKS. 115 

plained away by those who are set on supporting such 
application. 

Grotius was determined to apply the prediction of "the man 
of sin," 2 Thess. ii. to Caligula ; he therefore labours, but 
in vain, to prove that the Epistle was written A. 38. the 2d 
of that Emperor. Its true date, about A. 52. the 12tli of 
Claudius, explodes that application. 

Grot. Prsef. in 2 Thess. Benson's Hist. b. 3. c. 5. s. 10. 
Macknight, Pref. to 2 Thess. 

400. To dispose all the different predictions, relat- 
ing to the same event, according to the order of time 
in which they were delivered, would give us a clear 
and connected view of them, and enable us to perceive 
the allusions in the posterior to the prior, and the ad- 
ditional intimations successively conveyed. 

401 . The study ingof the Epistles in the order in which 
they were written, would show the progressive state of 
things in the Christian church ; and would, by this 
means, throw great light upon them all. 



SECT. IV. 

Of the Occasions of the Books of Scripture, 

402. Almost all the parts of Scripture were written 
on particular occasions, to which they have more or 
less a reference. 

403. There are several circumstances which may 
be reduced under this head of the occasion of a book, 
which are all of some, though not of equal, importance. 



116 OCCASIONS OF BOOKS. 

404. The place where, and the situation in which, 
a person writes, is not a matter of mere curiosity, but 
often throws light on his writing, by showing the pro- 
priety and beauty of his figures, by illustrating his allu- 
sions to objects, customs or opinions, by accounting for 
particulars which he mentions, or for the manner in 
which he mentions them. 

Many figures and images in the poetical books are naturally 
suggested by the scenes amidst which they were written, 
and thence derive great additional beauty. Judea was parch- 
ed in summer ; hence, distress, figured by drought ; relief, 
by showers and springs. It was liable to torrents ; hence 
allusions to them frequent. Liable to violent storms and 
earthquakes ; hence many metaphors and comparisons. 
Lowth, Sac. Poes. Heb. Blair, Rhet. ib. 

Mark xv. 21. Simon is described as " the father of Alexander 
and Rufus." Mark wrote his Gospel at Rome, where these 
were well known, Rom. xvi. 13. 

405. Knowledge of the persons for whose immedi- 
ate use a book was written, of their situations, opin- 
ions, and customs, is of still greater importance, as it 
often accounts both for the selection of matter, and for 
the manner of writing. 

Matthew wrote in Judea, for the immediate use of the Jews. 
Hence his being particular on Christ's genealogy ; the mas- 
sacre at Bethlehem ; the sermon on the mount ; the fulfil- 
ment of prophecies ; his giving no explications of Jewish 
customs. 

Lardner's . Credib. Suppl. Michael. § 88. Macknight, 
Prel. Obs. 6. 
Mark wrote at Rome for the use of the Christians there, many 
of whom were Gentiles. Hence his omitting the above par- 
ticulars, his describing places, c. i. 13. and Jewish customs, 
c. vii. 2, 3, 4. 
Michael, ib. 



OCCASIONS OF BOOKS. 117 

406. The particular occasion, or special reason, 
for writing any book of Scripture, must be collected 
from histoiy, from intimations in other parts of Scrip- 
ture, from openings in the book itself; and is, in dif- 
ferent instances, discoverable with different degrees of 
ease and certainty. 

407. Knowledge of the particular occasion, or the 
special reason for writing any part of Scripture, is of 
the very greatest importance for throwing light upon 
it ; as, to this, it often has a reference throughout. 

Psal. xxiv. was written for the procession at bringing the ark 
to Mount Zion. This gives light and beauty to the senti- 
ments, the order, and the expressions of the whole. 

Delauny, Life of David. Lowth, Sac. Poes. Blair, ib. 
Isa. xxxvii. 22 — 34. contains Isaiah's prediction of FTezekiah's 
deliverance from Sennacherib The occasion of it is mi- 
nutely related from the beginning of ch. xxxvi. ; and this 
renders the whole clear ; but ignorance of this would have 
occasioned many obscurities. 
Lowth in loc. 
The occasion of 1 Thess. is clear from Acts xvii. 1, &c. and 
the epistle itself. They were lately converted, imperfectly 
instructed, and exposed to persecution. The design is to 
preserve them steadfast; the conduct is suited to their situ- 
ation ; the practical directions are adapted to young con- 
verts, who had been lately Pagans. 
Benson, Hist, of Christ, and Paraph. 
Macknight, Pref. to 1 Thess. 

408. The occasion of waiting any part of Scripture, 
when known, is of great use for ascertaining the scope 
and design ; which should be determined in conformity 
to that occasion. 



1 18 OCCASIONS OF BOOKS. 

The epistle to the Galatians was occasioned by some believing 
Jews teaching that Gentile Christians were obliged to ob- 
serve circumcision, and other Jewish rites ; ch. ii. 3. iv. 10. 
V. 2, 3. comp. with Acts xv. 1, &c. Hence great strifes and 
animosities, c. v. 13, 14, 15. Its scope is, to prove the Jew- 
ish ceremonial not obligatory ; and, by this means, to per- 
suade them to steadfastness in their immunity from it, and 
to restore them to peace and harmony. 

Locke, Synops. Benson, Hist. b. 3. c. 5. s. 11. Michael. 
§ 3. Castalio. Taylor, Key, § 305, Macknight, Pref. to 
Galat. 

409. The occasion throws light on the plan of a 
book, and the several topics employed in it. 

Galat. The Judaizers used several arguments in support of 
their false doctrine. 1. The superior authority of Peter 
and the other apostles ; 2. Paul's own former opinion and 
practice ; 3. That all the promises are made to the chil- 
dren of Abraham, who was circumcised.— -Plan, a confuta- 
tion of these; — the two first jointly in his history of him- 
self, c. i. ii. — the second again, c. v. 11. — the last, c. iii. 
iv. The practical exhortations are suitable to their state 
of dissension, and to the cause of it. 
Michael, ib. 

410. The occasion of a book illustrates the meaning 
of general or ambiguous expressions, which, when used 
in reference to its peculiar subject, should be deter- 
mined suitably to the occasion. 

Locke, Grot. 
Galat. "Gospel, Truth," signify, mjost frequently, "the 
whole Christian doctrine." But, when used in reference 
to the subject of this epistle, have a much more restricted 
meaning, "the doctrine of the immunity of the Gentile 
Christians from the Jewish ceremonial," c. i. 6 — 9. ii. 2, 
5, 14. iii. 1. V.7. 
Locke, in loc. 



SCOPE 01' BOOKS. 119 



SECT. V. 

Of the Scope and Design of the Books of Scripture, 

41 1 . The scope and design of a book of Scripture 
is to be collected from its known occasion, and from 
attention to its general tenor, to the tendency of the sev- 
eral topics, and to the force of the leading expressions ; 
for perceiving all which, repeated and connected pe- 
rusals of the book itself are the best means. 

Locke, Essaj on Epistles. 

412. If we knew all the purposes which the inspir- 
ed writers had in view^ in their several books, it would 
lead us to a very thorough understanding of them ; but 
this is beyond our reach. 

413. Such knowledge of their particular design, in 
writing, as we can attain, will contribute very much to 
our understanding them, and that in proportion to its 
clearness and certainty ; but some knowledge of it is, 
in many cases, absolutely necessary for our at all en- 
tering into their meaning. 

Glass. Philol. Sacr. 1. 2. p. 2. s. 2. 

414. Even in the historical books, where it seems 
least necessary, such knowledge as we may obtain 
of the design in writing them, will account for the selec- 
tion of materials, and for adopting particular modes of 
expression. 



120 SCOPE OP BOOKS. 

Genesis, not intended for a general history of all nations; 
but selects such facts as tended to enforce the worship of 
the true God, to excite the Israelites to the observance 
of their religious laws, to trace their descent from Abraham, 
to insinuate instructions by example, to alienate them 
from the religions of their neighbours. 

Cleric. Prol. Diss. 3. § 2. Warburton, Div. Leg. b. 6. 
s. 2. 

Gospels, not a complete history of the life of Christ ; hence 
things are omitted in one which ^re related in another, 
and some things omitted in them all, John xx. 30. But 
as many are recorded as are necessary for our faith in his 
mission, and knowledge of his doctrine. 

Acts, not intended for a history of the apostles ; mentions 
the preaching almost only of Peter and Paul. Not for 
a complete history even of these. Peter is dropt after 
the conversion of Cornelius ; Paul at his going to Rome 
It is intended only for an account of the promulgation of 
Christianity, 1. among the Jews, 2. to the devout Gentiles, 
both by Peter; 3. To the idolatrous Gentiles, by Paul. 
It is carried no farther than this purpose required, 
Benson, Hist, of Christ. 

416. Some of the poetical books are one whole, 
having a general scope and design ; which, when it 
can be discovered, throws great light upon them. 

416. Other poetical books are a collection of seve- 
ral distinct and independent pieces, having some anal- 
ogy in their subjects and designs, though not strict 
enough to unite them into one determinate scope ; 
but each of them has its own particular scope, atten- 
tion to which wdll contribute both to our perceiving 
their beauties, and to our entering into their meaning. 



SCOPE OF BOOKS. 121 

Psalms, a collection of hymns, unconnected, not arranged in 
any order, according to their authors, times, or subjects. 
But each liymn has generally one subject, and one scope. 

41 7. Some of the prophetical books have one simple 
subject and scope, which is easily discoverable. 

Jonah, a simple history of his mission to prophesy against 
Nineveh; of his misbehaviour in relation to it; and of 
his being reproved on that account. 

Nahum, one entire, regular poem, foretelling the destruction 
of Nineveh. 

Lowth, Sacr. Poes. prsel. 21. 
Habakkuk. The prophetical part is a prediction of the 
captivity of Judah, of their return from it, and of the de- 
struction of the Chaldeans. 

Obadiah. One prediction of the destruction of the Edo- 
mites by Judah, in return for their violence against it. 

418. But most of the prophetical books are collec- 
tions of many separate predictions, at different times, 
and on different subjects, interspersed with narrations, 
reproofs, exhortations, and devotions ; it cannot, there- 
fore, be supposed, that the whole should terminate in 
any one common design ; and the immediate scope of 
each prediction is not generally different from its mean- 
ing, or the events foretold ; but special views in fore- 
telling them, or reasons for it, may sometimes be dis- 
covered, and considered as the ultimate scope of the 
prediction. 

419. It is peculiarly of importance to attend to the 
general scope and design in the argumentative parts of 
Scripture ; which are, chiefly, the epistles, particularly 
those of Paul. 

Locke's Essay on Epistles. 
16 



122 SCOPE OF BOOKS. 

420. There is oue general difference observable be- 
tween the scope of the epistles and that of the gospels ; 
that the latter represent the principles of Christianity 
absolutely, or as they are in themselves ; the former re- 
latively, as respecting the state of the world at that par- 
ticular time. 

Taylor's Pref. to Rom. § 28. 

421. In the epistles, it is proper to suppose one gen- 
eral scope and design, till it be found necessary, from 
the strain of it, to admit a plurality of independent 
views; and, in many of them, there really is one main 
design, suitable to the occasions of them, to which all 
their parts are subordinate. 

Locke, ib. 
1 Thess. To persuade to stedfastness in the faith and prac- 
tice of Christianity, which they had but lately embraced. 
Galat. To prove the immunity of Gentile Christians from 
the Jewish ceremonial. 

422. The design of an epistle is the great key to 
the whole of it. Till it is discovered, all must appear 
involved in obscurity and confusion. When it is fully 
ascertained, all becomes regular, distinct j and clear. 

Locke, ib. 

423. A just conception of the scope of an epistle, 
contributes greatly to our discovering the plan and 
distribution of the whole, the tendency of the several 
members, and the manner in which the arguments are 
conducted ; and shows them all uniting in one point. 

Locke, ib. 

424. Knowledge of the general scope of an epistle, 
is often the best or the only means of jfixing the sense 



PLAN OF BOOKS. 123 

of particular expressions used in it ; not only of the 
leading expressions which run through it, but even of 
the more incidental ones, which are sometimes selected 
with a plain view to promote it. 
Locke, ib^ 



SECT. VI. 

Of the Plan and Distribution of the Books of Scripture, 

425. Every book, even that which has the greatest 
simplicity of design, has distinct parts ; the number, 
tendency, order, and arrangement of which, form its 
plan and distribution. 

426. The books of Scripture being of very different 
kinds, the plans of them must be very dissimilar ; and, 
even books of the same kind differ considerably, in the 
plans on which they are constructed. 

427. In the most of the historical books, there is no 
other plan pursued, but a narration of certain events, 
suiting the intention of the book, and belonging to the 
period which it takes in ; generally, in the order nearly 
of time ; and the distribution of them is sufficiently ap- 
prehended, when the different events are distinguished. 

Genesis. A history — of the creation — the antediluvian world 
— the deluge — the repeopling of the earth from Noah 
— the dispersion of mankind — the calling of Abraham — 
the patriarchs, till the death of Joseph. 

Exodus. A history — of the state of the Israelites after Jo- 
seph's death — the birth and youth of Moses — their deliv- 



124 PLAN OF BOOKS. 

erance from Egypt — their first year's journey in the wil- 
derness — with a particular account of the laws promul- 
gated during that period. 

Leviticus. Almost wholly an account of particular laws giv- 
en by God — and a few remarkable events connected with 
them. 

Numbers. A history of the remarkable events from the 
beginning of the second to the end of the thirty-ninth year 
of their journey — with an account of several laws given 
them. 

428. Some of the historical books observe a more 
artificial distribution ; arranging the facts recorded un- 
der distinct heads. 

Deuteronomy contains seven parts ; the four first digested 
into as many speeches of Moses, delivered at the times, 
and on the occasions there related. 1. A summary of 
their history in the wilderness, to ch. iv. 40. 2. A sum- 
mary of the laws given them, to end of ch. xxvi. 3. Direc- 
tions what to do after passing Jordan, ch. xxvii.xxviii. 4. An 
exhortation to obedience, ch. xxix. xxx. 5. An account 
of events posterior to his making these speeches, particu- 
larly his song, ch. xxxi. xxxii. 6. His benediction of the 
people, ch. xxxiii. 7. An account of his death, ch. xxxiv. 
Ken. Diss. 2. c. 1. p. 91. 

429. Such of the poetical books as have one design, 
have likewise a plan suited to it ; in which there is 
generally great regularity and beauty, and which throws 
light both on the several parts, and on many particular 
expressions. 

430. Such poetical books as contain a collection of 
separate and independent compositions, which have no 
common design, arrange not these on any regular plan. 



PLAN OF BOOKS. 



125 



The psalms arc placed, neither according to their authors, 
dates, nor subjects ; but, as they happened to come to the 
hand of the collector. 

431. But each separate composition, when of any 
length, has its own plan and disposition ; and in this, 
there is considerable variety. 

432. Some of the scriptural poems are disposed in 
an alphabetical order, consisting of twenty-two lines, 
stanzas, or periods, according to the number of the 
Hebrew letters ; each line or period coinciding in its 
pause with that of the sense. 

Psal. cxi. cxii. divided into 22 lines, beginning with the let- 
ters in their order, and making 10 stanzas. 

Lam. iii. into 22 stanzas or periods, each of three lines ; 
both the stanzas and the lines beginning with the letters 
in their order. 

Psal. XXV. xxxiv. cxlv. Prov. xxxi. 10-— -31. Lam. iv. into 
22 stanzas, each of two lines, but only the stanzas begin- 
ning with the letters in their order. 

Psal. cxix. into 22 periods, each consisting of eight stanzas, 
beginning with the same letter as the period, and each 
stanza of two lines, but the second line not so beginning. 

Lam. i. ii. into 22 stanzas, of three lines each, the stanzas 
only alphabetical. 

Psal. xxxvii. into 22 stanzas, of four lines each, the stanzas 
only alphabetical. 

Lowth, Prelim. Diss. p. 4, 5, 6. 

433. In poems thus disposed, a very strict connex- 
ion cannot be expected, though, in most of them, it is 
far from being neglected ; but the main intention has 
been to assist the memory in retaining the detached 
aphorisms, of which such poems consist. 
Lowth, ib. p. 5. 



126 PLAN OF BOOKS. 

434. This disposit\pn sometimes points out false 
readings, which have crept into the text ; foiv when 
it is clear, from the whole structure of a poem, that 
such disposition was intended, it is reasonable to as- 
cribe to the mistakes of transcribers, the irregularities 
which now occur ; and it sometimes, likewise, sug- 
gests the true reading, or gives confirmation to it when 
otherwise suggested. 

In Psal. XXV. there is no stanza beginning with 1, the sixth 
letter ; but v. 5. has three lines, irregular ; the last begin- 
ning with "jmt?, probably for *|nxi, which is regular in three 
MS8. ; the second line wanting, but transposed, to v. 7* 
which has three lines; the last tautological there, but 
proper for v. 6. which will stand thus, " And on thee do I 
wait ail the day, For thy goodness sake, O Jehovah." 

Ver. 18. should begin with p, but begins with ni<i, the same 
word as v. 19. whence it has probably been taken by trans- 
cribers. 

Ver. 22. probably an addition ; the alphabet complete with- 
out it; it begins, as well as v. 16. with £3, and is not con- 
nected with the subject of the Psalm. 
Ken. Diss. Gen. § 84, 14, 165. 

Psal. xxxiv. V. 6. beginning with 1, is wanting, v. 22. begins, 
as V. 16. with S, and is superfluous ; perhaps it had 1 pre- 
fixed, and was transposed from v. 6. 

Ken. ib. 

Psal. cxlv. V. 14. beginning with 3 is wanting. But 70. Syr. 
Vulg. Arab, have a distich proper here, "Jehovah is 
faithful in all his words, and holy in all his works." One 
Hebrev/ MS. has, at the foot of the page, a distich answer- 
ing to this version, and beginning with pNJ, doubtless 
genuine. 

Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 48, 80, 82, 84, 14. cod. 142. 

Lam. ii. v. 16. and 17. are transposed, 3 being put before J?, 
but right in four MSS. Syr. Ch. iii. v. 46, 47, 48, begin- 



FLAN OF BOOKS. 127 

ning with D, are put before v. 49, 50, 51, beginning with v 
but right in 2 MSS. Syr. Ch. iv. v. 16, 17, transposed in 
like manner ; right in live MSS. Sjr. 

Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 23, 165, p. 83. n. 

435. The alphabetical poems, by shewing the pre- 
cise extent of each line and stanza, give great light for 
discovering the form and structure of the poetry in 
them, and, by this means, supply general principles 
concerning that form in such poems as are not alpha- 
betical ; that it is regulated by some fixed measure, or 
cadence ; that it consists not of rhyme ; that there is 
some parallelism in the corresponding lines ; and that 
they are reducible to two species, distinguished by 
their length. 

Lowth, Prel. Diss. p. 4 — 34. Herder's Dialog, on Hebrew 
Poetry. 

436. Some of the Scriptural poems are regularly 
disposed into parts, either by the introduction of differ- 
ent persons,^ or, by an alternate rehearsal of them,^ 
or, by the repetition of a chorus or burden at the end 
of each member,^ all productive of beauty. 

* Psal. ii. The speakers are, 1. the Psalmist, v. 1 — 5. 2. Je- 
hovah, V. 6. 3. Messiah, v, 7, 8, 9. 4. Psalmist, v. 10, 1 1, 
1 2. dramatic. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. § 165. 

2 Psal. xxiv. (NO 407.) 

Psal. XX. sung alternately ; the first five verses by the peo- 
ple ; V 6. by David ; v. 7, 8, 9. by the people. 
Pearce, Serm. on v. 7. 

3 Psal. xlii. xliii. consists of three parts, with a chorus subjoined 

to each. 
Psal. Ixxx. consists of three unequal parts, each concluding 
with the same chorus, v. 3, 7, 19. "Turn us again, ('O 
God,' y. 3. *0 God of hosts,' v. 7. *0 Jehovah, God 



128 PLAN OF BOOKS. 

of hosts,' V. 19. either designedly, or by mistake of trans- 
cribers), cause thy face to shine, and we shall be saved." 
Psal. cvii. consists of five parts ; all, except the last, con- 
cluding with this chorus, " that men would praise the 
Lord," &c. with different reasons, suitable to the sense of 
the preceding part. 

437. Most of the Scriptural poems are disposed 
simply according to the different subjects,^ or the parts 
of the one subject,^ of which they treat ; sometimes 
clearly distinguished from one another ; oftener sliding 
easily into one another, or naturally interwoven, so as 
not to admit an accurate analysis ; but always with 
great poetical beauty. 

^ Psal. xix. celebrates, 1. the works of God, v. 1 — 6. 2. His 
law, V. 7 — 1 1. the distinction being precisely marked ; and 
concludes with devotions naturally suggested by the latter. 

'2 Psal. xxii. describes the Messiah, 1. as suffering, v. 1 — 21. 
2. as triumphant, v. 22 — 31. sufficiently distinguished, 
but with an easy transition. 
Ken. Diss. Gen. § 165. 

438. Of such prophetical books as contain many 
predictions, the natural distribution is into these seve- 
ral predictions. Where the distinction of them, and 
the termination of each, is not clearly marked, it occa- 
sions difficulties, which will be considered afterwards ; 
where it is precisely marked, as it often is, it throws 
great light on the prediction. 

Amos. There is a clear distinction of his several predictions 
concerning — Syria, i. 3 — 5. ; the Philistines, v. 6 — 8. ; Tyre 
V. 9, 10. ; Edom, v. 11,12.; Ammon, v. 13—15.; Moab, 
ii. 1 — 3. ; and Judah. v. 4, 5. In the rest of the book, which 
relates wholly to Israel, there is not so clear a distinction. 



PLAN OF BOOKS. . 129 

Isaiah. The predictions in the first 39 chapters are clearly 
distinguished, and hence derive light. Those in the following 
chapters want this advantage. But he is remarkable for a 
just distribution of the parts, and a natural order in treating 
them. 
Lowth, Sacr. Poes. prsel. 21. 
Joel. The distribution and order are plain. 1. The desolation 
of the country by locusts, to ch. ii. 27. 2. The effusion of 
the Holy Spirit, v. 28—32. 3. Judgments against different 
nations. 

Lowth, ib. Chandler. Pref. to Joel. Dupin. 
Jeremiah. Three parts. 1 . Various predictions, distinctly mark- 
ed, to the end of ch. xxxv. 2. Mostly historical, to end of ch. 
xlv. 3. Many predictions, likewise distinctly marked, to end 
of ch. li. The last chapter is not his. 
Lowih, ib. 
DanieL Two parts. 1. Historical, first 6 chapters. 2, His 
predictions, in distinct visions, to end. 
Dupin. 
Ezekiel. Twenty -two predictions, in the order in which they 
were delivered, obviously distinct, and each prosecuted with 
closeness. 
Lowth, ib. Dupin. 

439. Such prophetical books as have one simple 
subject, and such separate predictions as are in any 
degree complex, describe the events belonging to that 
subject ; sometimes according to the order of their suc- 
cession, which contributes to perspicuity ; and some- 
times according to some connexion in their nature ; 
but often in union with a poetical arrangement, proper, 
beautiful, and striking. 

Nahum. 1. The exordium, august and magnificent. 2. The 
preparation for the destruction of Nineveh. 3. The destruc- 
17 



130 PLAN OF BOOKS. 

tion itself; both described with the greatest sublimity and 
force. 

Lowth, ib. 

Christ's prediction against Jerusalem, describes the several 
events in the order of time ; therefore clear, and easily as- 
certained. 

440. The argumentative parts of Scripture are most 
of the epistles, particularly Paul's ; and, in the most 
general view, the plan of all of them is obvious, and 
very uniform ; each of them, besides an introduction 
and a conclusion, consisting of two parts, the doctrinal 
and the practical. 

441. The former is the main part ; it is it that is 
properly argumentative ; and it is in it that an investi- 
gation of the plan and distribution is both most neces- 
sary and most difficult. 

442. When an epistle has two or more independent 
designs, these form its plan ; which is investigated, by 
ascertaining what these distinct subjects are, where one 
of them is concluded, and another begun, and what 
parts of the book relate to each of them. 

Locke, ib. 

1 Corinthians. Introduction, ch. i. 1 — 9. Conclusion, ch, xvi. 
Body of the epistle has two subjects, 1. to reclaim them 
from a false teacher, who had led them into several faults, to 
end of ch. vi. 2. To answer their questions, and correct 
abuses and errors among them, ch. vii — xv. 

443. When an epistle has one principal design, the 
natural distribution of it is, into the several steps or 
arguments employed for promoting it ; which, being 
subordinate to it, ought all to be considered in the 



- CONNEXION OF THE PARTa. 131 

relation which they bear to it, and explained in thpt 
sense which suits it ; a principle which is applicable, 
likewise, to each part of such epistles as have more 
than one design. 
Locke, ib. 

444. A discovery of the real plan and distribution 
of an epistle, or argumentative piece, will throw great 
light on the force, the import, and the conduct of the 
several arguments, and on the meaning of many par- 
ticular expressions. 

445. But, care must be taken not to aifect too great 
nicety and precision in distinguishing and separating 
the several members of an epistle ; for, as the apostles 
did not study an artificial method, this would break the 
connexion of their discourse, misrepresent their argu- 
ments, and pervert the meaning of their words. 



SECT. VII. 

Of the Connexion of the Parts in the Books oj 
Scripture. 

446 Every member, in the general plan of a book, 
consists of parts, which have a certain connexion with 
one another ; and often, each of these subordinate 
parts consists of different sentences, or propositions, 
which have, likewise, a connexion ; and, the discovery 
of such connexion is of great importance, for ascertain- 
ing both the true reading, and the sense. 



132 CONNEXION OF THE PARTS. 

447. Among various readings found in copies, that 
which suits the connexion should be preferred to such 
as do not suit it, though these be, in other respects, 
better supported. 

Mark i. 2 Ev Ha-uice. TO) 7rpo<p)}Tyi, most MSS. Vulg. Sjr. Pers. 
Arm. Copt. Goth. Porphyr. Orig. A than. Jerome. But 
ev Toig vpocpviTui^f in Alex, and several other MSS. Iren. com- 
mon editions, preferable from the connexion. 
Mill in loc. and proleg. No. 412, 702, 1019. 

Mat. V. 47. " If ye salute" m^ (piXm, most MSS. Arm. Goth. 
But ««^eA^«5, in Camb. MS. Vulg. Copt. Yet preferable, 
otherwise synonymous with v. 46. 
Mill and Kuster. in loc. 

Mark xi. 10 *H epx'^f^m ^octiXuoi, en ONOMATI KYPIOY, ra 
Trecrpog, &c. Alex. and many other MSS. but perplex the 
sense — wanting in 7 MSS. Vulg. Syr. Arm. Copt. Arab. 
Pers. and in the quotation of Orig. right; the clause has been 
taken in from v. 9. 

Mill in loc. and proleg. No. 1246. 

448. The sense and connexion are, sometimes, alone 
sufficient to shew that there is a corruption, and like- 
wise to suggest the proper correction of it. 

Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. 4. 

2 Sam. xxiii. 13. "Thirty of the thirty went to David." So 
all editions, except Complut. palpably wrong. Three, v. 16, 
17. Q'wh^ for ntyW, Compl. Keri. above 20 MSS. all Vers. 
1 Chron. xi. 15. 

Ken. in loc. and Diss. 1. p. 145. 

449. But one reading ought not to be preferred to 
another far better supported, much less to be adopted 
without any positive authority, except the sense and 
connexion render it absolutely necessary, as the only 



CONNEXION OP THE PARTS. 13S 

means of removing, not merely a difficulty, but an ab- 
surdity or falsehood. 

Houbig. ib. Michael. § 18. 

450. Nay, a reading may sometimes deserve to be 
preferred, on account of its leaving the connexion some- 
v^hat obscure, or not immediately obvious ; for it may 
have been, for that very reason, changed by trans- 
cribers. 

Michael, ib. 

4bl. The more independent copies there are of any 
book, the less liberty is allowable in making correc- 
tions, merely because the sense and connexion seem to 
require them ; for the less probability there is that an 
error should have crept into all the copies. 

Michael. § 31. 

452. Emendations suggested by the sense and con- 
nexion, but not supported by any MS. or version, ought 
not to be inserted into the text ; but only marked in 
the margin, or in notes. 

Houbig. ib. 

453. The connexion is of so great importance for 
the interpretation of scripture, that its true sense can 
be apprehended only by explaining every sentence and 
expression according to the place in which it stands, 
and the relation which it bears to what precedes, and 
what follows. 

454. General terms being often used only in a part 
of their extension, it is the connexion that shews to 
what part of it they ought to be limited. 



134 CONNEXION OF THE PAHTS. 

Heb. xi. 6, " Without faith it is impossible to please God.'* 
Not saving or Christian faith. The expression is limited by 
the next words ; " that he is, and that he is a rewarder of 
them that diligently seek him." 

455. In like manner, ambiguous expressions must 
be restricted, among their several signij&cations, to that 
one which suits the connexion. 

Mat. xxiii. 23. "Judgment, mercy, and/aif/i;" not "belief 
of any kind," but " fidelity." 

Rom. xiv. 23. Whatsoever is not of faith, is sin" — not "justify- 
ing faith" — not "a warrant from Scripture;" but "a full 
persuasion of its lawfulness." This is the natural meaning 
of TTia-Tii ; and, though not frequent in Scripture, is the only 
sense of it through this chapter, and alone can suit the ar- 
gument. 

Taylor. Locke. Macknight. Critic- in loc. Sander- 
son's Serm. 

Rom. i. 28. ASoM/zog, " unsearching," referring to eSoKif^uTctv 
just before, "try or search." So Tit. i. 16. But 2 Cor. xiii. 
5, 6, 7. "destitute of proof," referring to S'ox.tf^ " sl proof," 
V. 3. And 1 Cor. ix. 27. 2 Tim. iii. 8. Heb.vi. 8. "disap- 
proved, rejected." 

Locke and Macknight in loc. Pearce on 1 Cor. 

456. Every term should be considered as it stands 
in the proposition of which it makes a part, and ex- 
plained, not by itself, but so as to bring out the real 
sense of that whole proposition. 

Mat. vii. 24. " Whosoever heareth these sayings, and doth 
them, (subject) I will liken him to a wise man which built 
his house upon a rock," (predicate.) The sense is plain, "he 
who practises as well as hears, builds his hope of salvation 
on a sure foundation." But an Antinomian wrests it thus : 
" The subject of the comparison is, 'whosoever cometh to 
Christ by faith being given him of the Father' (supposed 



CONNEXION OF THE PART*. 135 

without ground :) Such an one hears his words, not only 
externally, but internally ; and he doth them, exercises faith 
on Christ, his grace and righteousness held forth in them, 
and performs all duties without any view to obtain eternal 
life thereby, which he expects only from Christ, as his say- 
ings direct him. Every such believer builds the salvation of 
his soul, he digs deep, till he con)e to a good foundation, a 
rock, Christ, the rock of ages, and he lays the whole stress of 
his salvation on him." Gill in loc. — Here, plain expressions 
are explained by metaphorical ; a meaning is put on a word 
inconsistent with its place in the sentence ; the sentence de- 
stroyed, being all turned into a predicate for a subject gra- 
tuitously supposed ; the real meaning explained away, turned 
into an insignificant assertion, * that he who expects salva- 
tion only from Christ, lays the whole stress of his salvation 
upon him,' or, * he who believes on Christ, believes on 
Christ.' 

457. In a piece of reasoning, every proposition 
must be considered in its connexion with the whole 
argument ; if it be a principle, or medium of proof, 
in relation to the point intended to be proved ; if an 
inference, in relation to the premises whence it is de- 
duced ; if only an illustration, in reference to the pur- 
pose for which it is brought. 

458. In an argument, the context sometimes sug- 
gest a step which has been left to be understood, in 
pursuing it. 

459. In a narration, the connexion and series will 
sometimes suggest circumstances necessary for com- 
pleting it, which have been omitted in their place. 

Cleric. Ars Critic, p. 3. s, 3. c. 5. and Dissert, in Harm. Evang. 
2. can. 4, 5, 6. 



136. COMPARISON OF SCRIPTUREe 



CHAP. VL 



Comparison of Scripture with itself. 

460. Comparison of Scripture with itself, or ex- 
plaining and illustrating one passage by another, is an 
important source of criticism, the legitimacy and force 
of which depend on this principle. That the whole of 
Scripture was intended to be, and as inspired, must 
really be, consistent. 

461. Comparison of Scripture with itself is — either 
Particular, of one passage with another passage— or 
General, of a passage with the analogy of faith. 

Glass, Philol. L 2. p 2. s. 2. 

462. The particular comparison of Scripture with 
itself, is of very great utility ; and it is, either of paral- 
lel passages, or of passages not parallel. 



SECT. I. 



Comparison of Parallel Passages. 

468. Passages may be parallel to one another in 
several different ways ; suitably to which, their uses in 
criticism will be likewise different 



PARALLEL PASSAGES. 137 

464. First, passages are, in the strictest sense, pa- 
rallel, in which, either with or without a quotation, 
the same thing is said in the same, or nearly the same, 
words ; and if, in these, the agreement be perfect, 
they shew the integrity, but cannot contribute much to 
the illustration of each other ; but there is seldom or 
ever such perfect agreement; and, therefore, passages 
of this kind generally throw some light on one an- 
other. 

Glass, Philol. Sacr. ib. 

Exod. XX. 2 — 17. parallel to Deut.»v. 6 — 18. 

Psal. xviii. to 2 Sam- xxii. Psal. xiv. to Psal. liii. 

Psal xcvi. to 1 Chron. xvi. 23, &c. 

Psal. cv. 1—15. to 1 Chron. xvi. 8—22. 

Psal. cviii. 1—5. to Psal. Ivii. 7—11. v. 6—13. to Psal. Ix. 

5—12. I 

Psal. cxv. 4 — 11. to Psal. cxxxv. 15 — 20. 
Psal. Ixxix. 6. to^er. x. 25. Isa. ii. 2 — 4. to Mic. iv. 1 — 3. 
Psal. xxxi. 1 — S.no Psal. Ixxi. 1 — 3. 

465. One such passage often serves for correcting a 
false reading in another. 

Ken. Diss. 1. passim. Diss. 2. passim. Diss. Gen. § 100, 133, 
140, 165. 

In PsaL xviii. and 2 Sam. xxii. as printed, there are near 130 
variations. These are not original, for many of them are 
plain corruptions, and many are removed by the authority of 
MSS. All may be corrected by comparing the passages ; 
e. g. Sam. v. 11. NTi " dnd he was seen upon the wings of 
the wind"— flat, wrong. Psal. N^n, " He did /?/"— right, 
context f J MSS. of Sam. v. 12. Sam. " He made dark- 
ness pavilions round about him" — defective in metre. 

Psal. " darkness his secret place, (nno) his pavilion dark 
waters," &c. 2 MSS. of Sam. v. 13, Sam. "Through 

the brightness that was before him" defective in 

18 



138 PARALLEL PASSAGES. 

metre. Psal. supplies **his thick clouds passed." right. 
It follows, "SnJI 1^2 ** hailstones and coals of fire," abrupt. 
Sam. 'Snj n;r:3 " thej were kindled into coals of fire," 
right V. 14. Psal. irregular, 3 hemistichs ; the last, "hail- 
stones and coals of fire," improper ; wanting in 4 MSS. 
70. Ital. and in Sam. thej have been taken from the pre- 
ceding verse. 
Ken. Diss. 1. p. 464. &c. Diss 2. p. 564, &c. et in loc. 
Diss. Gen. § 113, 118, 140, 179. 
Psal. cv. 1 — 15. differa from 1 Chron. xvi. 8 — 22. in so very 
few places, that these differences seem to have arisen from 
corruptions. Psal. v. 5. VS, " his mouth," irregular. in*S in 
above SO MSS. Chron.'v. 12, and in all copies. Psal v. 6. 
« Ye seed of Mraham ;" but, in 10 MSS. « Israel." Chron. 
V. 13. " Israel," but, in 2 MSS. "Abraham." Psal. v. 8 -iDT. 
" He hath remembered," right, connexion. Chron. v. 15. 
nD?, " Remember ye." So 3 MSS, of Psal. Psal. v. 12, 
□nvn^, " when they were." connexion. Chron. v. 19* 
tZ3Dnrn3, " when ye were." So 25 MSS. of Psal. 
Ken. in loc. 

466. If, in such parallel passages, the sense be 
manifestly contradictory, we are sure that one of them 
has been corrupted ; and should endeavour to discover 
which it is, and to correct it, either from the parallel 
place, or by any other means in our power. 

467. But when, in two such passages, the sense is 
the same, though the words be dijfferent, we must be 
very cautious in supposing a false reading in either ; 
for in many cases, it is evident, that the sacred writers 
meant not to confine themselves to the same words, but 
only to express the same sense ; and, by not observ- 
ing this rule, transcribers and critics have been led 
into many mistakes. 



PARALLEL PASSAGES. 139 

Cleric. Harm. Evang. Diss. 2. c. 2. Mackiiight, Obs. 1. Mi- 
chael. § 15. 

Psal. cxv. 4—1 1. Psal. cxxxv. 15—20. Ken. in loc. 

Isa. ii. 2 — 4. Mic. iv. 1 — .^. There is no presumption that the 
very same words were intended to be used. Isa. T\'n'' ])d:, 

Mic. |DJ n^n^ ; Isa. O'D^, Mic. a^U ; Isa. m:\ Mic. 

5<in m}) ; Isa. CD^Jn Sd, Mic. O'd;; (3 MSS. ^D) ; Isa. a^^n 
CD-nr^, " many peoples,*' Mic. pini IV a^^^V O^uS, « strong 
nations from afar." There is no reason to correct either, 
though some have proposed it. 
Lowth's Isa. in loc. 

Matth. xxvi. 26, 27, 28. Mark xiv. 22, 23, 24. Luke xxii. 
19, 20. 1 Cor. xi. 23, 24, 25. The words of the institution 
are different, but not to be assimilated ; they are intended 
only to express the sense. 
Macknight, ib. 

468. When, among various readings, one agrees 
exactly with a parallel place, the other only in sense, 
the former is often, for that very reason, suspicious, 
and, except it be well supported by authority, the 
latter will, generally, deserve the preference. 

Michael, ib. 

469. Even when passages are most exactly similar 
in themselves, the occasions, or the application of 
them, may contribute to our understanding their full 
meaning. 

The promises of Abraham, Gen. xii. 3. ; to Isaac, ch. xxi. 12. 
xxvi. 4. ; and to Jacob, ch. xxviii. 14. though in the same 
vj^ords, successively limit the expectation of the Messiah. 
Gerard, vol. 1. Serm. 6. 

Isa. vi. 9, 10. is referred to, six times in the New Testament ^ 
Mat xiii. 14. Mark iv. 12. Luke viii. 10. John xii. 4a 
Acts xxviii. 27. Rom. xi. 8. ; a comparison of all which 
places will give light to it. 



140 PARALLEL PASSAGES. 

470. Even when passages are very much parallel, 
a clear and precise expression, in one of them, may 
illustrate one more obscure and ambiguous, in another. 

471. Secondly, those passages of Scripture are 
parallel, which relate the same facts. They are nu- 
merous : and the comparison of them with one another 
is productive of great advantage. 

Many parts of Gen. are parallel to 1 Chron. — Many parts of 
Exod. Lev, Num. to Deut. — Sam. King, to Chron. — 2 Kings 
xviii. 13, &c. and 2 Chron. xxxii. &c. to Isa. xxxvi. &c. — the 
Gospels. 

472. Such passages often serve for correcting false 
readings in each other, and may be legitimately ap- 
plied to this purpose ; particularly in proper names, 
and numbers ; when the sense of them, as they stand, 
is irreconcileable ; when the false reading might have 
arisen from the true, by a natural mistake 5 or, when 
it is contradicted by copies or versions. 

Josh. xxi. 13—37. 1 Chron. vi. 42—66. The 48 cities of the 
Levites ; but only 44 in Josh, according to the Masoretic 
Hebrew, and only 42 in Chron. There are also surprising 
differences in their names. 
Ken. in loc. 

Deut. ii. 26. "with words of peace," wanting in Num. xxi. 21. 
but found in the Samaritan. Deut. v. 28. ** thou shalt sell 
me meat for money, that I may eat; and give me water 
for money, that I may drink ; only I will pass through on 
my feet. Wanting in Num. but in the Samar. 

473. But, wherever none of these circumstances 
take place, it is probable that the different readings 
found in such passages, were originally intended, and 
neither of them ought to be corrected by the other. 



"PARALLEL PASSAGES. 141 

474. Plain and direct expressions, in one narration, 
explain such as are difficult, in another narration of 
the same fact. 

Mark xiv. 72. (No. 162.) 

475. In different relations of the same fact, circum- 
stances, omitted in one of them, but fit for throwing 
light upon it, may be often supplied from the other. 

Mat. ii. 1, &c. simply relates that Jesus was born at Bethlehem, 
and refers to Micah's prediction of it. But Luke ii. 1 — 4 
informs us of the reason of it, which accounts for it, and 
renders the accomplishment the more remarkable. 

476. Thirdly, passages are parallel, in which the 
same words or idioms are used in different connexions, 
or on different subjects ; and the comparison of such 
passages is of very great utility, for ascertaining the 
meaning of these words or idioms. 

Glass, ib. 

477. If any one sense of a word be proper, and 
suitable, in all the places where it occurs, that is most 
likely to be the true sense of it. 

Pearce on 1 Cor. ix. 27. 

^YyteetvuTec hSccTxecXtei " sound doctrine ;" the simple doctrine 
of revelation, as opposed to subtleties, and as practical ; 
1 Tim. i. 10 vi. 3. 2 Tim. i. 13» iv. 3. Tit. i. 9. ii. 1, 2, 8. 
Gerard, vol. 2. serm. 5. 

Atxeita^x, translated very variously ; Luke i. 6. Heb. ix. 1, 10. 
" ordinance.'* Rom. i. 32. Rev. xv. 4. "judgment." Rom. ii. 
26. V. 18. viii. 4. Rev. xix. 8. " righteousness." Rom. v. 
16. ** justification." It every where signifies, " A rule jus- 
tifying or rendering perfect." 
Locke on Rom. ii. 26. Taylor on ch. v. 16. 



142 PARALLEL PASSAGES. 

478. The signification of words and phrases ought 
to be taken from those places, in which it is ascertain- 
ed by the connexion, or the nature of the subject; and 
accordingly interpreted in places where there is noth- 
fng that can thus ascertain it. 

Gen. iv. 15. « The Lord set (nix) a mark upon Cain." This 
has given rise to strange conceits ; but the word often signi- 
fies " a pledge or token," Gen. ix. 12, 17. particularly "a 
miracle," and this is its most common signification ; « a mira- 
cle, to assure Cain that he should not be killed." 
Essay for a new translation, p. 1. ch. 6. § 4. 

Gen. vi. 2. " Sons of 6roe?," of the great men / *' daughters of 
menP meaner persons, (Psal. xlix. 2. Ixii. 9. Ixxxii. 6, 7, &c.) 
inp% "took them by force," (v. 11, 13.) Gen. xx. 2, 3. xxxiv. 
2, &c. 

Essay, &c. ib. ch. 8. § 6. 

Eccles. xi. 1. "Cast thy &refld" (pnS) or "corn," (Ruth i. 6. 
Isa. xxviii. 28.) " upon the waters," (CD'Dn) or " moist 
ground," (Isa. xv. 6. xxx. 23. xxxii. 20. Jer. xlviii. 34.) "and 
after many days thou shalt find it." connexion, v. 4, 6. 
beautiful, and a strong argument. 
Essay, &c. ib. ch. 10. § 5. 

Rom. vii. 5. " When we were ev rjj a-xpKi^ in the flesh." The 
expression is ambiguous. " understood the law in a mere lit- 
eral sense," (Locke) wrong. It occurs only in ch, viii. 8. 
" vicious," connexion, v. 5,^, 7, 13. it has the same sense here. 
(Taylor.) " The motions of sin which were hoc t« v«ft», by 
the law ;" Engl, many Comment, i. e. " excited by it." 
wrong. " in the state of being under the law." So Si uKpaQv- 
e-riui, ch. iv. 11. also 2 Cor. v. 10. 1 Tim. ii. 15. Eph. iii. 6. 
Locke in loc. 

479. The clear meaning of a phrase, in any part of 
Scripture, has great authority for determining its 
sense in any other part ; but the usage of it, in the 
writings of one author, has the greatest authority for 



PARALLEL PASSAGES. 14S 

jfixing its sense, as elsewhere used by the same author ; 
for, in one writer, a greater similarity of style may be 
expected, than in different writers. 

480. When a word is used somtimes in a literal, 
and sometimes in a metaphorical sense, it must not be 
supposed that it implies, in the latter case, all that it 
implies in the former case ; similitude, in some one res- 
pect, being sufficient for the propriety of a metaphor. 

481. It is particularly absurd, and of pernicious 
consequence, to deduce articles of faith from meta- 
phorical expressions, supposed to be meant in all the 
strictness of their literal sense. 

482. The metaphorical sense of a word should be 
explained by the literal, and the more remote meta- 
phorical sense by the less remote ; and not contra- 
riwise. 

483. Care must be taken not to bring passages to- 
gether, merely by the sound ; or, to suppose that 
texts relate to the same subject, or contain the same 
sentiment, merely because the same expressions are 
used in them. 

Locke, Pref. Essay for a new Transl, p. 1. c. 6. § 16, 17, 18. 

484. Fourthly, those passages are parallel, which 
treat of the same subject in different expressions ; and 
the comparison of such is of great use for illustrating 
one another, and making that subject more perfectly 
understood. 

Locke, Pref. Glass, ib. 



144 PARALLEL PASSAGES. 

485. In comparing such passages, obscure expres- 
sions should be explained by such as are perspicuous; 
and ambiguous expressions, by such as are precise. 

486. Passages are, in this manner, parallel, which 
express the same doctine, or precept, in diflPerent 
terms ; and difficult, or figurative expressions, in one 
such passage, are to be interpreted by such as are 
easy, or proper, in another. 

Gal. vi. 15. "Anew creature.'^ figurative — explained by ch. 
V. 6. " Faith which worketh by love ;" and by 1 Cor. vii. 19. 
" The keeping of the commandments of God." proper, all 
synonymous. 

487. It is not from one such passage, taken singly, 
that a doctrine or precept ought to be collected, as 
has been too often the practice ; but from them all, 
taken in conjunction, consistently explained, with such 
limitations of the expressions in each, as the rest shew 
to be necessary. 

488. Predictions of the same events, given at dif- 
ferent times or by different prophets, along with a 
degree of similarity sufficient for indicating the iden- 
tity of their subject, generally have such variety in 
the expression, as enables one to illustrate another ; 
and one of them often intimates some circumstances 
omitted in another. 

489. A passage which contains a prediction, and 
passages which relate its accomplishment, are parallel 5 
and the latter not only verify the former, but, gener- 
ally illustrate the meaning of the expressions employ- 
ed in it. 



PASSAGES NOT PARALLEL. 145 

Gen. xlix. 7. " I will divide them (Simeon and Levi) in Jacob, 
and scatter them in Israel ;" not that they were to be con- 
founded with the other tribes ; but Simeon had only part of 
the land of Judah, Josh. xix. 1, 9. and went in search of dis- 
tant accommodation, 1 Chron. iv. 39 ; and Levi some cities 
in every tribe. Josh. xxi. 1 Chron. vi. 
Newton on Prophecy, Diss. 4. 
Isa. iiL 2, 3. explained by 2 Kina;. xxiv. 14. 

Lowth in loc. 
Isa. xxxiii. by ch. xxxvi. &c. 
Lowth in loc. 



SECT. IL 



Comparison of Passages not parallel. 

490. Passages of Scripture, which have none of 
the relations hitherto mentioned, cannot be considered 
as parallel ; yet they may often be compared in some 
respects ; and, from the comparison of them, consider- 
able light may be derived. 

491. Expressions, phrases, and idioms, used in 
different texts, concerning different subjects, may be, 
though not the same, yet so similar, as to illustrate 
one another. 

492. A passage, relating to one subject, may re- 
ceive illustration from another, in which an analogous 
subject is treated with a different manner of expres- 
sion. 

19 



146 PASSAGES NOT PARALLEL. 

493. One passage of Scripture sometimes alludes, 
or, in some way, refers, to another, and may be ex- 
plained by being compared with it. 

494. One passage of Scripture sometimes points 

out the occasion, origin, and meaning of words and 

phrases used in other passages. 

Chandler's Defence of Christianity, c. 2. s. 1. Newton, ib. 
Diss. 14. 

495. One passage of Scripture may serve for re- 
stricting general expressions, and duly limiting the 
sense, in another which cannot be considered as paral- 
lel to it. 

Mat. iv. 6, 7. Luke iv. 9 — 1 2. Christ limits and explains the 
devil's quotation from Psal. xci. 11. by Deut. \i. 16. 

496. Comparison of different passages of Scrip- 
ture sometimes contributes to our discovering the de- 
sign of a part of Scripture, or the occasion of writing 
it. 

497. The comparison of passages, in no respect 
parallel, is often of great use, for fixing the dates and 
chronology of events. 

498. The comparison of different passages often 
explains customs, manners, or opinions, the knowledge 
of which is conducive to our understanding the Scrip- 
tures. 

499. It is often by comparing different passages, 
that we can ascertain what are the places, or nations, 
meant in Scripture, by names which occur not in pro- 
fane history. 



ANALOGY OF FAITH. 



147 



i' 



Chittim is a name which frequently occurs. It is a general 
name for « the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean ;" 
Gen. X. 5. countries to which the Asiatics went by sea; Isa. 
xxiii. 1, 12. Carthage and the Mediterranean islands ; Jer. ii. 
10. countries westward from Judea ; Ezek. xxvii. 6. Corsica ; 
Dan, xi. 29. The Romans. 

Newton, ib. Diss. 5. Lowth's Isaiah, xxiii. 1. 



SECT. III. 



Comparison of particular Passages with the Analogy oj 

Faith. 

500. As one passage may be compared with anoth- 
er passage, so a particular passage may be compared 
with the analogy of faith, that is, with the general 
tenor of the doctrine taught in Scripture. 

Glass, Philol. Sacr. 1. 2. p. 2. s. 2. 

501. All the great principles of religion may be 
collected from Scripture, while yet many particular 
texts remain not understood. When thus collected, 
they form the analogy of faith, and may be applied to 
the illustration of these texts, which must be explain- 
ed in a consistency wdth them. 

502. But, the application of this instrument of cri- 
ticism is very liable to abuse. There is considerable 
difficulty in fairly collecting the genuine tenor of 
Scripture doctrine ; there is great danger of substitut- 
ing, in the place of it, preconceived, and precarious 



148 ANALOGY OF FAITH. 

Opinions, and of wresting particular passages, in order 
to reconcile them to these ; and, therefore, the great- 
est care and caution are absolutely necessary, for ren- 
dering it really useful. 

Locke, Pref. Glass, ib* 

503. No doctrine can belong to the analogy of faith, 
which is founded on a single text ; for, every essential 
principle of religion is delivered in more than one 
place ; but this rule has not always been observed. 

Extreme unction is founded only on Jam. v. 14, 15, perverted 
from a temporary direction, to a perpetual institution, — 
from a mean of recovery, to a charm, when recovery is des- 
perate, for the salvation of the soul. 

Cameron, Grotius, Benson, in loc. 

504. The analogy of faith ought to be collected 
from, or the tenor of Scripture ascertained by, such 
texts as are plain and clear, and expressed in proper 
terms ; not from such as are doubtful, obscure, ambi- 
guous, or figurative, which ought to be explained 
by those others ; but men have often taken the con- 
trary road. 

Glass, ib. 
Transubstantiation is founded on a strictly literal interpretation 
of figurative expressions, " this is my body," Mat. xxvi. 
26, &c. and (which too has no relation to the supper) " eat 
" my flesh, drink my blood," John vi. 51 — 58. 

505. In ascertaining the analogy of faith, texts 
which treat professedly of a subject, have greater 
weight than such as only touch it incidentally ; and 
texts which express it absolutely, and as it is in itself^ 



ANALOGY OF FAITH. 149 

are clearer, and more decisive, than such as have a 
reference to particular occasions, without a perfect 
knowledge of which they cannot be understood, but 
may be totally misapprehended. 

506. In forming the analogy of faith all the plain 
texts relating to one subject, or article, ought to be 
taken together, impartially compared, the expressions 
of one of them restricted by those of another, and ex- 
plained in mutual consistency, and that article deduced 
from them all in conjunction ; not, as has been most 
commonly the practice, one set of texts selected, which 
have the same aspect, explained in their greatest pos- 
sible rigour ; and all others, which look another way^ 
neglected or explained away, and tortured into a 
compatibility with the opinion, in that manner partial- 
ly deduced. 

507. The analogy of faith, as applicable to the ex- 
amination of particular passages, ought to be very 
short, simple, and purely scriptural ; but most sects 
conceive it, as taking in all the complex peculiarities^ 
and scholastic refinements, of their own favourite sys- 
tems. 

508. If these rules be not strictly observed, the 
comparison of particular passages with the analogy of 
faith will be so far from contributing to the illustra- 
tion of Scripture, that it will only pervert it, in con- 
formity to men's prejudices and false opinions, as has 
been very frequently the case. 

Locke, Pref. 



150 ANALOGY OF FAITtt. 

509. On a supposition of its being most agreeable 
to the analogy of faith^ a false or suspicious read- 
ing has been sometimes adopted ; and^ on a supposi- 
tion of its repugnance to that analogy, a reading or a 
passage, unquestionably genuine, has been sometimes 
rejected. 

Michael. § 15. 

liuke xxii. 43, 44. concerning " an angel strengthening Christ 
in his agony ;" omitted in the Alex^andrian and some other 
MSS. and marked with asterisks in others ; denied by sev- 
eral of the Fathers, because reckoned inconsistent with his 
divinity and urged by the Arians. 

Grot. Erasm. in loc. Mill in loc. and Prol. No. 797, 798. 

The epistle of James rejected by some, as contrary to the 
analogy of faith concerning justification ; but undoubtedly 
genuine. 

Schultet Observ. in 2 Tim, i. 13. c. 4. apud Crit. Sac, torn. 
7. p. 3868. 

510. But a reading ought to be examined by the 
direct evidence for and against it, not by its connexion 
with any set of opinions ; and that reading, which 
seems fittest for supporting an article of faith, is not 
always to be preferred to another which has no rela- 
tion to it ; for it might not be the view of that passage 
to support that article, however true. 

Wetstein, Prol. c. 16, § 12. 

511. For the same reason, that interpretation of a 
particular passage which is most favourable to a real, 
or supposed article of faith, is not, on that account, 
to be always preferred ; and the most obvious and nat- 
ural sense is to be set aside, only when it is absolutely 
contradictory to something plainly taught in Scrip- 



ANALOGY OF FAITH. 151 

ture ; but the opposite way has often been taken by 
all sects. 

Mat. xvi. 18. "Thou art Peter, and on this rock I will build 
my church," o-v Uerpoq, kcii eTn rocvrv^ tjj TFtrpoc.. Building 
on Peter is explained away by some, as contrary to the 
faith that Christ in the only foundation, 1 Cor. iii 11. and 
as favouring the supremacy of Peter and his successors. 
But the connexion shows, that Peter is here plainly meant; 
the apostles are elsewhere called the foundation on which 
the church is built, Eph. ii 20. Rev. xxi 14. as the persons 
employed in erecting the church, by preaching. It is here 
promised, that Peter should begin erecting it, by his 
preaching, which was fulfilled, both among the Jews, Acts 
ii. 14, &c. and among the Gentiles, ch. x. xv, 7. This 
gives no countenance to the papal supremacy, but the con- 
trary ; for this prerogative was personal and incommu- 
nicable. 

Critic, in loc. 

John xvii. ;2 'Ivist IIAN o ^f^6>x«5 avro)^ Jwc-sj ctvrotii ^avjV otiavioVf 
may signify, by an enallage, of which there are some in- 
stances, " that he should give eternal life to as many as 
thou hast given him." Eng. after Beza, most favourable 
to predestination. But literally, " that he should give to 
them, all that thou hast given to him, eternal life." This 
the natural and proper sense, and contradicts no article 
of faith. 

512. But, if all the rules which have been laid 
down, be strictly observed, the comparison of partic- 
ular passages with the general tenor of Scripture will 
be of the greatest use ; particularly, for preventing 
our overstretching figurative and metaphorical ex- 
pressions, for enabling us to restrict general expres- 
sions, for setting aside opinions hastily deduced from 
a few separate texts, and for giving every doctrine its 
proper limitations. 



152 CIVIL HISTORY; 



CHAP. VII. 

History and Man7iers, 

513. History, especially ancient history, contri- 
butes, in many instances, and in different ways, to the 
illustration of Scripture. 

514. To this head belong, civil history, political 
history, customs and manners, chronology, geography, 
and natural history. 



SECT. I. 

Of Civil History, 

515. By civil history we mean, relations of actions 
and events ; and many such relations throw light upon 
the Scriptures, and have been often applied to this 
purpose. 

Shuckford's and Prideaux's Connexions. Stackhouse's Hist, of 
the Bible. Benson's Hist, of Christianity. Lardner's Credi- 
bility, p. 1. b. 1. 

616. Relations, by other historians, of the same facts 
which are related in Scripture, illustrate the historical 
parts of it, in much the same manner as parallel pas- 
sages of Scripture. 



CIVIL HISTORY. 163 

517. Such relations, by other historians, often con- 
firm the relations of the sacred historians, ev^en con- 
cerning facts which appear most extraordinary. 

Matt, xxvii. 51, &c. coniirmed by several heathen historians. 
Usser. Annal. 

Acts xii. 21 — 23. Luke's account of Herod's death, confirm- 
ed in all material circumstances by Josephus. Antiq. 1. 19. 
c. 8. 

518. When other historians relate the same events 
with the sacred writers, they often record circumstances 
omitted, or only hinted at, by these and fit for throw- 
ing light upon them. 

Acts xii. 21. " Upon a set day, " the second of the shows in 
honour of the Emperor. Joseph, ib. — " In royal apparel," 
a robe of silver, reflecting the rays of the rising sun which 
fell upon it. Jos. ib, 

519. Other historians often relate events not men- 
tioned in Scripture, but connected with such as are 
there recorded, and fit for throwing light on the nar- 
ration of them. 

Acts xii. 1 — 5. Herod's fondness for the Jews, and persecu- 
tion of the Christians ; the former confirmed,and the latter 
accounted for, by his great zeal for the law. Joseph. Antiq. 
1. 19. c. 7. 

520: Histories of the events foretold in Scripture, 
w^henever we have them accurate and full, throw great 
light on the meaning of the predictions concerning these 
events, and generally shew the punctual accomplish^ 
ment of them, even in their minutest circumstances. 
Gen. xvii. 20. " Twelve princes shall he (Ishmael) beget,'^ 
the names of his twelve sons, ch. xxv. 12 — 16. The Ara- 
bians have always lived in tribes, each governed by a 
20 



154 CIVIL HISTORY. 

prince, or Phylarch, (Strabo,!. 16. Hieron. quaest. Hek 
Thevenot, p. 1. b. 2. c. 32. Harris's Voyages, v. 2. b. 2. 
c. 9.) and these, for a long time, twelve in number. Melo 
ap. Euseb. prsep. Evang, 1. 9. c. 19. 

Cleric, in loc. Newton on Proph. Diss 2. 

Nahum foretells, ch. i. 10. that Nineveh should be taken 
when the people were drunk ; and so it was, Diod. Sicul. 
1, 2. — chap. ii. 6. that ** the gates of the river should be 
opened, and the palace dissolved ;" the river broke down 
twenty furlongs of the wall, and overflowed part of 
the town ; and the king burnt himself, with his palace, &c. 
Diodor. ib. — v. 9. " great spoil of gold and silver ;" many 
talents, Diodor. ib.— ch. i. 8, 9. ii. 11, IS. iii. 17, 18, 19. 
and Zeph. ii. 13, 14, 15. « its destruction total ;'* so much 
that the oldest historians speak of it only as having once 
been, and differ even about its situation. 
Newton, ib. Diss. 9. 

Isa. vi. 13. is obscure and variously explained,but made clear, 
partly by sacred history ;" a tenth left," 2 Kings xxv. 12, 
22. « others gathered themselves and returned," Jer. xl. 

7 12.; partly from profane history; the destruction of 

Jerusalem— the Jews again multiplying— their being near- 
ly exterminated by Hadrian, yet subsisting numerous still. 
Lowth in loc. 

521. The Scripture contains allusions to facts not 
mentioned in it, but related by other historians ; and it 
is from their relations, that these allusions must be ex- 
plained. 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 155 



SECT. IL 



Of Political History. 

522. Political Histoky, by which we mean ac- 
counts of the constitution of states, their laws, and 
forms of judgment, is often conducive to the illustra- 
tion of Scripture. 

523. A considerable part of Scripture has for its 
professed subject the nature of the Hebrew constitution 
of government, and its particular laws ;, and, the right 
interpretation of that part of Scripture, is coincident 
with the knowledge of these. 

524. It is from the nature of the Hebrew govern- 
ment, that we can deduce the precise import of expres- 
sions, which take their rise from particulars belonging 
to it. 

525. The Scripture contains allusions to particulars 
in the government and laws of the Hebrew^s, and, 
therefore, receives illustration from these particulars, 
and must be explained by them, 

Dan. vii. 9, 10. The images taken from the Sanhedrim. 

Newton, ib. Diss. 14. 
Mat. V. 21, 22. Three degrees of guilt, expressed in terms 
borrowed from Jewish judicatories, for different offences, and 
different punishments. xptTtr,, a court of 23 in every city, 
for civil offences, could strangle or behead. a-vnS'^iov, the 
Sanhedrin, for heinous crimes, stoned to death, ysenot, ra 
wvpoi, burning in the valley of Hinnom. 
Grot* Macknight in loc 



156 POLITICAL HISTORY. 

526. Though the laws of the Hebrews were fixed 
by divine authority^ and continued^ in a great mea- 
sure, unvaried, yet their government underwent sev- 
eral revolutions, which introduced alterations in sev- 
eral respects, under the Judges, under the Kings, 
during the captivity, after their return from it, and 
on their subjection to the Romans. 

527. Knowledge of the peculiarities of their situa- 
tion, in all these periods, is conducive to the illustra- 
tion of Scripture ; especially their state, the privileges 
which they enjoyed, and the restrictions which they 
were under in the last of them, contribute to the ex- 
plication of many passages of the New Testament. 

Under the Romans, the Jews were protected in the tree exercise 
of their religion, were governed bj their own laws, and 
permitted to live according to their own customs. Joseph. 
Antiq. 1. 14 c. 10. 

1 Cor. vi. 5,6. " Christians going before heathen judges," are 
reproved ; they were considered as a Jewish sect, and might 
have decided their own differences. 

The Jews had their council, which might apprehend, examine, 
confine, inflict smaller punishments, and carry before the 
Governor for capital offences. All these privileges were 
exercised in the trial of Jesus. But they had not the power 
of inflicting capital punishment. John xviii. 31. 

John viii. 3—11. The question concerning the adulteress, very 
artfully insidious. If Jesus said, " she ought to be stoned to 
death," they might accuse him to the Governor, or throw 
on him the blame of an illegal act ; if, " she ought not," they 
might expose him to the people. 
Lardner, Credibility, p. 1. b. 1. c. 2. 

The governor, before passing sentence on a person brought be- 
fore him by the Jews, was obliged to reexamine the cause 
himself. 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 157 

Lardner, ib. 
This explains Pilate's trying Jesus anew, though pronounced 
worthy of death by the council ; and Felix's trying Paul, 
though sent with a declaration of his innocence by Lysias. 

528. The nature of the constitution of other states 
contributes sometimes to the illustration of scripture ; 
it shews the meaning and the propriety of terms used 
in Scripture, for expressing any particulars, belonging 
to it. 

Acts xiii. 7. Sergius is called proconsul (oiv^vTrecroq) of Cyprus, 
the proper title of the governor of a province belonging to 
the people, as uvric-rpeiniyoq of one belonging to the Empe- 
ror. Cyprus (though in the first partition belonging to the 
Emperor, Strabo, L 14.) had been before this time given, 
along with Narbon Gaul, to .the people, in exchange for 
Dalmatia. 

Lardner, ib. p. 1. b. 1. c. 1. § 11. 

Actsxviii. 12. Gallio Proconsul {aiv6wetrevav) of Achaia. This 
was originally given to the people ; afterwards to the Em- 
peror ; again, A. D. 44, to the people : continued theirs at 
this time, A. 52 or 53 ; but soon after they lost it under 
Nero. 

Lardner, ib. § 12. 

529. The Scripture contains expressions derived 
from the constitution or laws of other states, and allu- 
sions to them ; which are to be explained from the 
accounts given of them. 

Acts xvi. 37, 38. *• They have beaten us openly uncondemned, 
being Romans ; the Magistrates feared when they heard that 
they were Romans." There is here an allusion to two Ro- 
man laws, against scourging a citizen, and against punishing 
unheard and uncondemned. Cicero in Verrem. 
Lardner, ib. c. 10. § 3, 4. 



158 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 

530. The Scripture sometimes simply relates facts, 
the reason of which is to be learned only from accounts 
of the constitution and laws of a particular state. 

<xen. xlvii. 22. Joseph " bought not the land of the priests," 
because two thirds of their revenues were for the expense of 
their worship. Diod. Sicul. 

Warburton, Div. Leg. b. 4. s. 3. 



SECT. III. 



Of Customs and Manners* 

531. Knowledge of the customs and manners of 
the Israelites is of very great use, and the knowledge 
of those of other nations is of considerable use, for 
illustrating many passages of Scripture. 

532. As the customs and manners of every people 
have a great influence on their language, those of the 
Israelites must contribute very much to our entering 
into, and understanding the style of Scripture, the 
greatest part of which is written in their language, 
and the whole in their idiom. 

533. The Israelites have proper terms for expressing 
what belonged to their simple and uniform manner 
of life, and the practices of pasturage and agriculture, 
with which almost alone they were acquainted ; but 
were obliged to have recourse to metaphors for ex- 



CUSTOMS AND MANNERS* 159 

pressing what belonged to a more refined state of so- 
ciety, a greater distinction of ranks, and a greater 
multiplicity of arts. 

534. Many of the Scripture metaphors are taken 
from their arts of agriculture and pasturage ; and can 
be understood only by our knowing the manner in 
which they performed the several operations belong- 
ing to these arts. 

Lowth. Sacr. Poes. preelect. 7. 

From threshing, for crushing enemies ; perspicuous and strong. 
Hab. iii. 12. " Thou didst tliresh the heathen in anger." 

From different methods of threshing, which are described, Isa. 
xxviii. £7, 28. Lowth's Isa. in loc. 

1. With the staff 2. The drag, a frame of planks, rough 
below, with stones or iron, drawn by horses, (Kempfer 
Amon Exot. p. 682.) Mic. iv. 13, "Arise and thresh, I 
will make thine horn iron, thy hoofs brass, and thou shalt 
beat in pieces many people." 3. The wain, like the former, 
but with wheels edged like a saw, (Hieron. in loc. Niebuhr, 
Voyage.) Tsa. xli. 15. " I will make thee a new threshing 
instrument — thou shalt thresh the mountains — beat them 
small — make the hills as chaff." 4. The treading of oxen, 
Deut. XXV. 4. The threshing floor was high, open to the 
wind for dispersing the chaff, (2 Chron. iii. 1.) when they 
fanned the corn. Isa. xli. 15. " The wind shall carry them 
away, the whirlwind shall scatter them." 

535. Many of the Scripture metaphors and images 
are taken from the customs of the Israelites in their 
common life ; and^ it is the knowledge of these that 
can enable us to perceive the meaning, force, and pro- 
priety of such. 

Lowth, Sacr. Poes. praelect. 7. 

"Mixt wine," means, in Greek and Latin, ** diluted with 



160 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 

water;" but, among the Hebrews, "made stronger by the 
addition of spices or drugs.'' Hence, "mingling wine, 
spiced wine," for feasts, Prov. ix. 2. Song viii. 2. This 
was derived from their manners, their fondness for such 
mixture. Therefore, it is a proper description of a drunk- 
ard. Prov. xxiii. 30. to " seek mioct wine ;" Isa. v. 22. " to 
mingle strong drink." It was intoxicating and stupifying; 
therefore, a strong metaphor for severe and confounding 
judgments; Psal. Ixxv. 9." a cup, the wine red," turbid, 
" full of mixture, poured out" from vessel to vessel, to mix 
it perfectly ; " the dregs thereof," the sediment of the strong 
ingredients mixt in it, "the wicked shall drink." Isa. li. 
17, &c. " The cup of fury, the dregs of the cup of trem- 
bling," producing intoxication, and confusion, and stagger- 
ing ; "sons unable to lead, fainting, lying at the head of the 
streets, full of the fury of Jehovah." Rev. xiv. 10. "Shall 
drink of the wine of the wrath of God. m KeKepeiTf^sva UKpxrif, 
(not, "poured out without mixture," as in the English 
version,) " mixt pure," (merum mixtum.) This seeming- 
ly contradictory ; but it is precise, " pure wine made stronger 
by the mixture of powerful ingredients.'' The image poet- 
ical and sublime. Isa. i. 22. " Wine mixt with water," an 
image for " corruption, depravity," the stronger, because the 
orientals drink it not thus mixt. Thevenot, Voyage, p. 2, 
1. 2. c. 10. 

Lowth*s Isa. in loc. 
Their manner of burying, and sepulchres, aiford many images, 
particularly for the state of the dead. — Caves dug below 
ground, — out of rocks, — dark, — surrounded with nitches, 
each holding a coffin. Job x. 21, 22. xxxiii. 18. Psal. 
Ixxxviii. 6. Isa. xiv. 9 — 19. xxxviii. 10. lix. 10. Ezek. 
xxxii. 18. 

Lowth, Sacr. Poes. preel. 7. and Isa. xiii. xiv. 

536. Many of the Scripture images are taken from 
the religious customs and rites of the Israelites ; and, 
the knowledge of these, not only shows their import 
and force, but adds dignity to them, by reason of their 
relation to religion. 



CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 161 

Virtue, represented by cleanness; vice, by uncleanness. Natur- 
ally, but with greater propriety and force, as referring to 
the legal distinction of clean and unclean, and the particular 
things reckoned such. Isa. i. 15, 16. to Lev. xiv. 8, 9, 47. 
(Lowth in loc.) Ixiv. 6. Lam. i, 8, 9. Ezek. xxxvi. 17. 

Lowth, ib. 
Psal. cxxxix. 15. "I was curiously wrought, "•nDp'i, wrought, as 
with a needle." A beautiful image of the human texture, but 
dignified by needle work being appropriated to some partic- 
ulars in the sanctuary, Exod. xxvi. 36. xxvii. 16. xxviii. 39. 

Lowth, ib. 
Psal. civ. 1, &c. " Clothed with honour and majesty,*' allud- 
ing to the high priest's sacred and magnificent robe. " Co- 
verest thyself with light," to the Schechinah. " Stretchest 
out the heavens like a curtain," that which covered the ta- 
bernacle. " Layeth the beams of the chambers in the wa- 
ters," to the many parts of the tabernacle easily put toge- 
ther. "Maketh the clouds his chariot, walketh on the 
wings of the wind," to the Schechinah when the ark moved, 
aloft in the air. " Maketh the winds his messengers, a flame 
of fire his servants," to the ministers serving constantly in 
the tabernacle. 

Lowth, ib. 

537. There are, in Scripture, images taken from 
the customs and manners of other nations hesides the 
Israelites, which may be explained from these. 

From hieroglyphical symbols. The luminaries, for empires. 
Lions and bears, for generals and warriors. From ordinary 
customs. Dan. ii. 31, &c. In Nebuchadnezzar^s vision, 
" A great image of human form," represents empire and 
dominion ; in medals, cities and nations are thus represented, 
V. 32, 39. " The belly and thighs of brass ;" the Macedo- 
nian empire, on account of their brazen armour. Joseph. 
Antiq. 1. 10. c. 10. 
Newton on Proph. Diss* 13* 
21 



162 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 

538. The sacred writers often allude to particular 
customs, both of the Israelites, and of other nations^ 
without at all explaining them ; and, it is only by ac- 
counts of these customs, that the passages which con- 
tain such allusions, can be rendered intelligible. 

Exod. viii. 26. *' Shall we sacrifice the abomination of the 
Egyptians ?" what they thought it impious to sacrifice, and 
would have resented, heifers, rams, goats, &c. Herodot. 
1. 2. c. 41, 42, 45, 65. 

Warburt. Div. Leg. b. 4. s. 3. 
Isa. xlvii. 2. " Take the millstones and grind meal ;" a strong 
metaphor ; grinding was the work of slaves ; in the east, of 
female slaves, low, severe. 
Lowth in loc. 

.1 Cor. iv. 9. " The apostles set forth last, as it were appointed 
to death.'* This alludes to the shows, the last of which was, 
persons combating with wild beasts ; and this the most danger 
ous, and appointed to the greatest criminals. " The apostles 
most hated, and exposed to the most imminent danger of 
death.' 

Grotius, Locke, and Macknight in loc. Benson, Hist, of 
Christ. 

There are frequent allusions to the Grecian games. 1 Thess. 
ii. 19. to the victor crowned by the judge, at the end of the 
course. 1 Cor. ix. 24 — 27. to the crown, and to the strict 
abstinence by which the competitors prepared themselves, in 
the Isthmian games, near Corinth. 2 Tim. ii. 5. " strive 
lawfully," according to the rules prescribed, viz, contend- 
ing naked, an image of being divested of love to the world. 
Ch. iv. 7, 8. to two of the exercises, boxing and running, 
and to the manner of crowning the victor. Phil. iii. 13. 14. 
to running, the goal, and the suspended crown. Heb. xii. 
1, 2, to many particulars. Acts xiii. 1. "Manaen crwrpo- 
^<»$ 'B^aGa. It alludes to princes educating, at their own 
expense, companions, along with their sons. Poljb. Plu- 
tarch. 

Raphel. Benson, and Macknight, in loc. 



CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 163 

539. There are passages of Scripture, in which 
customs and manners are expressly mentioned, and in 
part described ; but which receive further light from a 
more particular description of these. 

Gen. 1. £. 3. The embalming of Jacob, alludes to several E- 
gyptian customs. They had many physicians ; one for every 
disease, (Herod. 1. 2. c. 84.) After laying a body in nitre 
for 30 days, it was anointed and seasoned with spices 40 days ; 
this last was the proper embalming. The mourning continu- 
ed all the time it was in the hands of the embalmer, ("Herod, 
ib. c. 85. 86. Diod. Sic. 1. 1.) that is, 70 days. 
Warburt. Div. Leg. b. 4* s. 3. 
Acts xiv. 18. Garlands, either ("Grot, in loc.) to crown the 
apostles as gods ; which was customary, (^Pausan. Dionys. 
Hal.^ or, on the heads of the oxen, the victims ; which was 
likewise customary. Lucian. The Jewish custom of read- 
ing the Scripture weekly, in the synagogues, is often alluded 
to. Acts XV. 21. " Moses ;" the law alone read most an- 
ciently, ch. xiii. 15. " Law and prophets ;" only these 
ever read. Luke iv. 16. Jesus reading at Nazareth, was 
by the appointment of the directors ; the 50th haphtharoth 
of the prophets, which he read, was the lesson of the day ; 
and fixes the time to about the beginning of September. 
It was customary, also, to have discourses by desire, or 
permission ; v. 20. &c. Mat. xiii. 54. Mark. i. 21. Acts xiii. 
15, &c.xiv. 1. &c. 

Macknight. Benson in loc. Lardner, Credib. Beau- 
sobre, Introd . 

Excommunication is often mentioned ; Ezra, x. 7, 8. Neh. 
xiii. 25. John ix. 22. xvi. 2. It is explained by accounts of 
its nature and kinds. 1. Private reproof, confinement to 
home for seven days. 3. Niddui, removal four cubits from 
the synagogue and society. 3. Shematta, perpetual exclu- 
sion from the synagogue ; and this generally meant in the 
New Testament. Alluded to. Mat. xviii. 15—18. John 
xii. 42. Rom. xvi. 17. 1 Cor. v. 1. 2. 2 Cor. ii. 6, 7. 
2 Thess. ill. 10. Tit. iii. 10. 2 John 10. 



164 CUSTOMS AND MANN£R|5. 

Beausobre, Introd. 
Acts xii. 6, 7. xxi. 33. " Two chains ;*' it was the Roman 
manner to chain a prisoner to two soldiers, his keepers. 
Benson in loc. Lardner, Credib. p. 1. b. I.e. 10. 
Mat. X. 9. 10. Ev ^metii " girdles ;" this was the manner of 
carrying a large sum. n^^av, " scrip," a large bag for hold- 
ing provisions ; — " take not a great quantity." 

540. There are facts related in Scripture, the rea- 
son, or propriety of which, arises from certain cus- 
toms, or manners, and is discovered by just accounts 
of them. 

Mat. iii. 4. John ate U)cpth§, not " buds of trees," which is a 
rare sense of the word, but " locusts ;" they were permit- 
ted to be eaten. Lev. xi. 22. and were common food in the 
East 
Plin. 

Mat. ix. 23, " Minstrels and noise ;" the manner of mourning 
for the dead. 

Mat. xi. 17. " Piped, not danced ; mourned, not lamented ;" 
the same ; and also the manner at feasts. Both were imitat- 
ed by children in their games ; hence they became a pro- 
verb ; very apposite here. Of old, and in the East still, 
inns are not for entertaining, but only for lodging. Many 
texts have a reference to this. Judg. xix. 19. Mat. xv. 32. 
Luke X. 33, &c. 

2 Cor. xi. 24. '* Forty stripes save one.'* Deut. xxv. 3. forbad 
exceeding 40 ; the Rabbies had decided for 39 ; the manner 
of scourging with three thongs confined it to this number. 



CttRONOLOGt. 165 



SECT. IV. 



Of Chronology. 

541. Chronology as distinguished from history, is 
employed in ascertaining the dates, and the order of 
events. 

542. Time is very naturally distinguished into dif- 
ferent periods, terminated by remarkable events ; and 
several such being clearly pointed out in Scripture, 
they fix the proper division of sacred chronology. 

543. The chronology of the first great period, from 
the creation to the deluge, can be gathered only from 
the Scripture itself ; which, however, gives no other 
marks of time, but the age of each patriarch at the 
birth of his eldest son, and the duration of his life , 
but from these it might be exactly fixed, were it nbt 
that the Hebrew, Samaritan, and 70 version, differ 
from one another in some particulars ; with respect to 
which, though the two former, agreeing most nearly, 
would seem to deserve the preference, strong argu^^ 
ments are produced in proof of their being corrupted, 
and of the last giving the true numbers. 

Usser. Capell. Chronol. Sacr. Wall's Notes. Universal Hist, 
b. 1. c. 1. s. 3. Pearson, Epist. ad Bernard, in Sprott. 
Chron. Jackson's Chronol. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 30, 73 — 76, 
81—83, 91, ys. Playfair's Chronol 



166 CHRONOLOGY. 

544. In the second period, from the deluge to the 
calling of Abraham, the chronology can be learned 
only from the Scriptures. In it, too, the Hebrew, 
Samaritan, and 70, differ very widely ; and the two 
last, which make the number of years more than 
double the first, appear, to deserve the preference, not 
only on account of their near agreement, but also, as 
best suiting the series of events, and the populousness 
of nations, as represented in the history. 

Usser. Capell. Wall. Pearson, Jackson, Plajfair, Ken. ib. 

545. The third period extends from the calling of 
Abraham to the deliverance of the Israelites from 
Egypt ; and its chronology is clearly enough deter- 
mined from Scripture, all the copies agreeing in it. 

546. The fourth period, commencing at that deliv- 
erance, is extended by some to the beginning of the 
regal government, by SauPs advancement to the 
throne, or to the death of Samuel, the last of the 
Judges ; by others, to the building of Solomon's tem- 
ple 5 and its chronology, too, is to be settled chiefly 
from the Scripture. 

547. The fifth period may reach to the return of 
the Jews from the Babylonian captivity ; and, in it, 
the chronology may receive considerable light from 
profane history. 

548. The sixth reaches to the birth of Christ ; and 
is to be collected almost wholly from other writers, 
the sacred giving very few hints concerning it. 



GEOGRAPHY. 167 

549. The Chronology posterior to the birth of 
Christj is, in general^ clearly established ; but a very 
small part of it falls within the compass of the Scrip- 
ture history. 

550. The primary use of chronology, in Scripture 
criticism, is to shew the order and connexion of the 
several events recorded in the historical parts of the 
Bible. 

551. But chronology is, likewise, of very great 
importance for ascertaining the accomplishment of 
many of the prophecies. 

552. Chronology sometimes leads to the discovery 
and correction of mistakes in numbers and dates^ 
which have crept into particular texts. 



SECT. V. 



Of Geography. 

553. Geography, which gives an account of the 
situations of places, their several names, the nature of 
their climate, soil, and the like, is often a mean of 
throwing light on Scripture. 

Well's Hist. Geograph. of the 0. and N. T. 

554. The geography of Canaan is of great impor- 
tance, as it was the theatre of almost the whole that is 
recorded in Scripture 5 it has therefore^ justly been 



168 GEOGRAPHY. 

the object of particular attention ; and every particu* 
lar of it that can be ascertained, ilhistrates some text 
or removes some difficulty. 
Bethsaida is often mentioned in the Gospels ; it is generally 
placed near Tiberias, west of the lake of Genezareth. But 
it lay on its north-east shore, beyond Jordan. John xii. 21. 
« Bethsaida of Galilee ;" not properly, but Gaulonites often 
comprehended under it. (xMat. iv. 13, 14, 15. Joseph. Ant. 
1. 20. c. 3.) Luke ix. 10. " went aside to Bethsaida," from 
Herod, into Philip's dominions. Mark vi. 45. " to go to the 
other side to Bethsaida," not to the other side of the lake^ 
but of a creek or bay. 
Macknight, § 60, 61. 

555, But, as many other countries are mentioned 
in Scripture, or are the scenes of events related there, 
the geography of these likewise, is of considerable use 
for throwing light upon it. 
Well's Geogr. 

W)D is often mentioned in Scripture ; by many supposed Ethio- 
pia, (Vulg. Genev. Engl.) but this is a wrong supposition. 
It was Arabia Petrsea, or a part of it. Num. xii. 1. " Mo- 
ses's wife was a Cushite," but she was from Midian, (Exod. ii. 
16. &c.) which was a town in Arabia, (Joseph. Ptolom. 
Jerom.) either in the territory of Cush, or contiguous to it, 
(Habak. iii. 7.) It was near to Judea ; therefore, 2 Kings xix. 
9. its king might attack the Assyrians besieging Libnah ; 
2 Chron. xiv. 9. might attack Asa, king of Judah ; ch. xxi. 
16. it was near the Arabians ; Isa. xx. 3, 4, 5, might enter 
into alliance with Judah. It lay northeast of Egypt ; there- 
fore, Isa. xviii. 1. Egypt is properly described as « beyond 
the rivers of Cush." Ezek. xxix. 10. " from Syene (south) 
to the borders of Cush," (north-east,) signifies the whole ex- 
tent of Egypt ; ch. xxx. 9. ** flying Egyptians might easily 
go in ships (across the Red Sea) to Cush." 

Essay for New Translation, p. 2. e. 1. § 6. WelPs Geogr* 
O. T. V. 1. c. 3. s.4. §4,5. 



GEOGRAPHY. 169 

^356. By preserving the ancient names of places, 
tribes^ or nations, geograph-y assists us in determining 
the meaning of the proper names employed in Scrip- 
ture, which are often different from those which are 
used by other writers. 
Wells, O.T.v. I.e. 1. 

Chittim, the countries and islands about the Mediterranean. 

'This is confirmed: '*Cetii," a people, and "Cetium," a 

river in Lesser Asia (Homer. Strabo.) " Cittium," a town 

in Cyprus, which was called also, " Chethima," and its inhab- 

' itants " Chethim," (Joseph.) 

Macedonia, anciently called " Macettia," and by the Latins 
« Cetii." 

Newton on Proph. Wells, 0. T. v. 1. c. 3. s. 2. § 21, &c. 

557. It is, in some cases, absolutely necessary, and 
in all cases, very useful, for our understanding the 
Scripture history, to be acquainted with the geogra- 
phy of the places where the scene lies. 

558. Geography shews the meaning, the justness, 
and propriety of expressions, used by the sacred wri- 
ters, in describing, or speaking of places which they 
mention. 

John iii. 2, 3. "Nineveh, a great city — exceeding great," 
greater than Babylon, (Strab. 1. 16.) the greatest of all cities, 
(Diodor. Sicul. 1. 2.) — '* Of three days' journey," at 20 miles 
a-day, being 480 furlongs, above 60 miles, in circumference, 
(Diod. ib.) ch. iv. 11, "More than six score thousand" 
children. This, by some calculations, makes about 400,000, 
by others, 600,000 inhabitants. *But the city was about 
20 miles long, and 12 broad, (Diod. ib.) and stood on four 
times as much ground as Paris, which is computed at 700,000 
or London., computed at 800,000 inhabitants ; therefore, 
there was full room for them. — " And also mucii cattle," 

' 22 



170 GEOGRAPHY. 

there being in the eastern cities large spaces for gardens and 
pasture. 

Newton on proph. Diss. 9. Wells, ib. c. 5. § 19, &c. 

Isa. xxi. 1. Babylon is called "the desert (or plain) of the 
sea." It was situate in a plain always surrounded by wa- 
ters ; but of old covered with water, and called the Sea, 
till drained by Semiramis, (Herod. 1. 1. c. 184. Abyden. 
ap. Euseb. Praep. Evan. 1. 9. c. 41.) and became so again 
after being taken by Cyrus, and still continues; which, 
probably, is intimated here. 

Lowth's Isa. in loc. Newton on Proph. 

Isa. xlv. 2. Babylon's "gates of brass.^^ It had 100 such, 
besides others within the city. (Abyd. ib. Herod, ib, c. 
179, 180, 181.) 
Lowth in loc. Newton, ib. 

Jer. li. 58. " The broad walls of Babylon." They were ST 
feet broad, (Herod, ib.) and could contain six chariots abreast, 
(Diod. Sic.l. 2.) 
Wells, ib. c. 3. § 4. 

559. Knowledge of the several particulars which be- 
long to the description of countries, shows the import 
and force of such sentiments as are expressed in allu- 
sion to them. 

Job xxviii. 19. "The topaz of Cush." Not Ethiopia, for it 
produces none ; but first discovered in Chitis, an Arabian 
island, (Pliny) and the name Arabic. 
Schultens in loc. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 171 



SECT. VI. 

Of Natural History, 

560. Natural History comprehends accounts of 
the qualities of all the kinds of natural bodies ; and, in 
general, all facts which fall not with entire propriety 
under any of the heads already mentioned ; and it 
contributes, in many instances, to the illustration of 
Scripture. 

561. The Scripture sometimes professedly mentions, 
or in part describes, particular bodies ; and it is only 
by means of natural history, that the sense of these 
passages can be truly ascertained. 

2 Kings vi. 25. The famine was so great, that tlie besieged 
bought at a high price Q^jmn (Keri a':ir3l) "doves 
dung.*' This would have been a strange food, and there are 
many fancies about it. But the name is given bj the Ara- 
bians toakind of pulse, or peas, which is used still fried, both 
in Egypt and Palestine, and carried as provisions by the pil- 
grims to Mecca. 

Essay for New Translat. p. 2. c. 1. § 2. 

562. Sometimes the Scripture expresses sentiments 
in allusion to, or by metaphors taken from, some fact 
in natural history, the knowledge of which only can 
show the import or propriety of these sentiments. 

Job xxxvii. 22. "Out of the north cometh ^'n's^ (literally) 
gold.^^ It is generally taken figuratively, but very different- 
ly. Eng. " fair weather." If the word here mean "gold," 



172 NATURAL HISTORY. 

whence did it come ? It abounded in Colchis, (Strab. 1. 10. 
Appian.) which lay almost directly north from Palestine and 
Arabia. 

Schultens in loc. Reland. 

563. Sometimes the Scripture describes characters 
in allusion to some of the objects of natural history; 
and without the knowledge of these^ we cannot per- 
ceive the nature of the characters meant. 

Gen. xvi. 12. " Ishmael will be J<13 a wild ass man." The 
wild ass is described, Job. xxxix. 5, &c. fierce, ranging, un- 
tameable. Ishmael was such, (Gen. xxi. 20.) and such his 
posterity all along. Isa. xxi. 17. Virgil, Georg. 2. v. 448. 
Lucan, 1. 7, v. 230. Harris's Voyag. vol, 2. b. 2. c. 9. 
Bochart. Hieroz, p. 1.1. 3. c. 16. Cleric, in loc. Newton 
on Proph. Diss. 2. 



LEARNING. l73 



CHAP. VIII. 



Opinions and Learning, 

564. There are many opinions, of different sorts, 
the knowledge of which will contribute much to the 
illustration of Scripture; particularly those of the 
Hebrews, and those of ancient nations. 

565. There are, likewise, some parts of learning not 
properly reducible to the opinions of nations, which 
are subservient to the same purpose. 

566. The religious opinions of ancient idolaters, 
their philosophy, the Jewish sects, prevailing opinions 
and writings. Christian writers ancient and modern, 
and Pagan writers — all demand some attention under, 
this head. 



SECT. T. 



Of the Religious Opinions of Ancient Nations, 

567. The Israelites were^ surrounded by, and at 
times connected with, the Egyptians, the Canaanitish 
tribes, the Assyrians, the Persians, and other idola- 



174 RELIGIOUS OPINIONS. 

trous nations ; the knowledge of whose religion helps 
sometimes to illustrate passages of Scripture. 

568. Their religious opinions^ their rites of worship 
founded on these, their secret worship, or mysteries, 
their magical notions and ceremonies, are points, the 
knowledge of which has some utility. 

569. To these, several incidents in the Scripture 
have a reference ; and, therefore, are best explained 
by them. 

Num. xxii. 6, 17. Balak sent two embassies to Balaam; great 
anxiety for Balaam's cursing Israel, appears through the 
whole history. This was founded on the universal opinion 
of the efficacy of devoting an enemy. The Romans had pub- 
lic officers for the purpose, and a set form of execration. 
(Macrob. Sat. 1. 3. c 9.) 
Newton on Proph. Diss. 5. 

570. Many of the ceremonial laws of the Hebrews 
have a reference to the idolatrous opinions of the 
neighbouring nations, and their corresponding rites, 
being given in opposition to them ; and, therefore, 
derive light from the knowledge of them. 

Exod. xii. The passover was a memorial of the deliverance of 
the Israelites. But many circumstances of it were appointed 
in opposition to Egyptian superstitions^ Among them, "a 
lamb, or kid," was not sacrificed, but venerated. " A 
male," was worshipped as a symbol of Hammon ; female 
sacrifices were always preferred. "Eat no part raw," as 
was usual in solemn festivals : " Not carried forth," as was 
also usual : " No bone broken," as pulled asunder in enthu- 
siasm : " Not sodden,*^ as in solemn and magical rites : 
'' Roasted with fire," not by the heat of the sun : "To be 
eaten with its purtenance," the intestines, which were reserv- 



RELIGIOUS OPINIONS. 175 

ed for divination : ♦* No part to remain, but the fragments to 
be burnt," which were usually kept for charms and supersti- 
tious purposes. 

Spencer de Leg. Heb. 1. 2. c. 4, 
Num. xix. S. &c. " A heifer," worshipped as sacred to Isis. 
*• Red," most adored. 
Spencer, ib. 

571. Ill particular, the knowledge of the religious 
opinions and ceremonies of idolatrous nations, often 
shows the meaning of Jewish laws, given in reference 
and opposition to them, which would, otherwise, be 
obscure, or imperfectly understood. 

Lev. xix. 29. " Do not prostitute fhey daughter." Deut. xxiii. 
17. " There shall be no whore — nor a Sodomite." Not 
prohibitions of these crimes in general, but under pretence of 
religion ; these were common in the worship of some gods and 
were reckoned acceptable to them. 

Spencer, ib. c. 22. 

572. The knowledge of such opinions and ceremo- 
nies, shows the utility, or importance of laws given in 
contradiction to them, which would otherwise appear 
trivial. 

The law, " Thou shalt not seethe a kid in its mother's milk," 
seems trivial; yet it is repeated, Exod. xxiii. 19. xxxiv. 26, 
Deut. xiv. 21. An idolatrous and magical rite for fertiliz- 
ing. 

Spencer, ib. c. 8. 

Deut. xxii. 5. "Men wearing women's clothes, or women 
men's, an abomination ;" a rite universally prevalent, from 
the opinion of a difference of sex in the gods, and tending to 
impurity. 



176 RELIGIOUS OPINIONS. 

573. The knowledge of such opinions and ceremo- 
nies, shows the reason of laws given in opposition to 
them J which would otherwise appear to be arbitrary, 
or unnecessary. 

Lev. ii. 11. " Offer no leaven, nor honey;" in opposition to 
gross ideas of the gods, as pleased with delicacies ; honey 
was offered to the infernal and the hero gods. 

574. There are, in Scripture, frequent allusions to 
the opinions and worship of the idolatrous nations, 
which cannot be understood without the knowledge of 
these. 

Psal. xvi. 4. "Drink-offerings of blood." A principal cere- 
mony is here put for the whole of idolatry ; in opposition to 
which, the law was given. for pouring out the blood of sacri- 
fices, and for the prohibition of eating blood. 

Jer. xliv. 17, 18. Worshipping " the queen of heaven," the 
moon, as the means of procuring "plenty." It was the 
opinion of all, that plenty was procured by care in worship- 
ping demons ; and this opinion was imbibed by the Israelites. 

Isa. xlv. 6, 7. " I form light, and — darkness, — peace, and — 
evil." It alludes to the Magian tenet of two principles, a 
good and an evil. Both are but the creatures of Jehovah. 
Lowth in loc. 

Ver. 19. " Not spoken in secret — or dark place — declare 
righteousness (truth) things that are right (give direct an- 
swers ;") in opposition to heathen oracles, which were given 
from caverns, and were ambiguous. 
Lowth in loc. 



PHILOSOPHY. 177 



SECT. II. 



Of Ancient Learning and Philosophy. 

515. The Egyptians were very early eminent for 
their learning and wisdom ; there are references to it 
in Scripture ; and these derive light from what is 
known concerning it. 
Diod. Sic. 1. 1. Herod. 1. 2. Strab. 1. 16. 17. Macrob. Somn. 
Scip. and Saturn. Diog. Laert. Pliny, Hist. Nat. Burnett 
Archaeol. 1. i. Wotton on anc. and mod. learning. Warburt. 
Div. Leg. Univers. Hist. b. 1. c. 3. s. 2. 
1 Kings iv. SO. " Solomon's wisdom excelled the wisdom of 
Egypt." Acts vii. 22. " Moses learned in all the wisdom of 
the Egyptians." 

676. There are other eastern nations, likewise, who 
had learning and sciences, to which there are refer- 
ences in Scripture. 

1 Kings iv. 30. " the wisdom of the east country." 

577. There was a species of philosophy, supposed 
to have taken its rise in Egypt, and, therefore, called 
the Egyptian, which prevailed, in respect of its gen- 
eral principles, though with many differences as to 
particular tenets, in Syria, Chaldea, and Persia, and 
thence called the Oriental. 

Mosheim. Hist. Eccl. Ssec. 1. Michael. § 100, &c. 

578. Its speculations gave rise to some of the reli- 
gious opinions and rites of the nations addicted to it, 

23 



178 PHILOSOPHY. 

which were imitated by the Israelites, and are referred 
to in Scripture ; and will assist in the explication of 
such passages. 
Michael, ib. 

Isa. Ixvi. 17. " That sanctify themselves *]in!i inK nnK behind 
one in the midst." The supreme God was called One, and 
never appeared bnt surrounded with many ^ons, or inferior 
spirits, who were to be worshipped along with him. (Michael. 
§ 100.) But there are also other interpretations. 
Lowth in loc. 

579. The Jews adopted many of the speculations 
of this philosophy, accommodated them to their own 
religious principles, and, by the combination, formed 
several tenets, particularly fables and genealogies of 
angels, to which there are references in Scripture ; 
and it is^from the nature of such speculations, that the 
passages which refer to these are to be explained. 

580. Many who were addicted to the Oriental phi- 
losophy, having embraced Christianity, intermixed the 
tenets of the former with the doctrines of the la^ttor, 
and introduced strange notions, by means of the mix- 
ture, so early, that there are references to them in the 
New Testament. 

Mosheim, Hist. Eccl. ssec. 1. Michael. § 101. Macknight, 
Pref. to 1 John. 

581. The sects of this kind, called, by a general 
name. Gnostics, professed speculative opinions, which 
are opposed in some passages of Scripture, and which 
must be known, in order to our understanding these 
passages. 



PHILOSOPHY. 179 

Mosheim, ib, Michael, ib. Macknight, ib. 
John i. 1 — 18. has a reference to, and opposes, the opinions of 
the Gnostics, particularly Cerinthus. Jesus is called Aaye? 
/ttoKoye-vj}?, ^6>5, <^6)>j, ;t;f/e'T05, &c. in opposition to these being 
different aeons of unequal dignity. 
Michael. § 102. 
1 John i. 1, 2, 7. ii. 22, 23. iv. 2, 3, 9, 14, 15. v. 1, 5, 9, 10, 11, 
12, 13, 20. opposed to several of their tenets. 
Michael. § 150. 

582. By different ways of reasoning from the same 
speculative principles, some of the Gnostical sects de- 
duced a loose morality, and others imposed unreason- 
able austerities ; to both which there are passages of 
Scripture that have reference. 

Mosheim, ib. Macknight, ib. 

1 John i. 5, 6, 7. ii. 3 — 6. against placing religion in subtile 

knowledge, not practice. 
Ch. iii. 4—10. v. 18, 21. against the indifference of all actions, 

and the lawfulness of sensual impurities. 
Rev. ii. 6. " Deeds of the Nicolaitans." 

583. The ancient Israelites having had no inter- 
course with the Greeks, there can appear no traces of 
their philosophy in the Old Testament ; but, in conse- 
quence of the later intercourse, both of the Jews, and 
of the apostles, with those who studied that philoso- 
phy, there are some references to it in the New. 

Beausobre, Intr. 

584. There are some passages which allude to the 
manner of philosophizing ; and which receive light 
from the knowledge of that manner. 



180 PHILOSOPHY* 

1 Cor. i. 25, 23. '* The Greeks seek o-a^/eev," subtle disquisitions 
and argumentation. 

585. The Greek philosophers were divided into 
many sects, some of which are mentioned, and some 
of their tenets hinted at, in Scripture. 

Acts xvii. 18. "Epicurean and Stoics.'* v. 24, 25. God is 
described, in opposition to both, neither an idle being of hu- 
man shape, nor a mere soul of the world, v. 26, 30. " the 
providence of God," not chance, nor fate. v. 27, 28, 29. 
"God not far from us— in him we live, &c. — his offspring;" 
terms agreeable to the Stoics, contradictory to the Epicure- 
ans. V. 31. "Judgment;" the one doubted of a retribution, 
the other denied any future state, v. 32. " some mocked ;" 
the Epicureans. " Others said. We will hear thee again." 
The Stoics had some notions of a conflagration, and a reno- 
vation of things. 

586. There are, in Scripture, hints of opinions 
commonly received in the Greek philosophy. 

1 Thess. V. 23. Ilvsvfice, fpvxn, o-afioc; the constituent parts of 
man in the opinion of almost all sects. This opinion was 
tamiliar to the Thessalonians. 

Critici, Benson, Chandler, Macknight in loo. 



SECT. III. 



Of the Jewish Sects and Parties. 

587. After the captivity, the Jews, from being ob- 
liged to use literal translations of the Scriptures, were 
led, gradually^ to comment upon them ; which, giv- 



JEWISH SECTS. 181 

ing occasion to differences of opinion, produced dif- 
ferent sects among thenij distinguished both by their 
opinions and their practices. 
Lightfoot, in Mat. iii. 7. § 3. Cunse, Rep. Heb. 1. 2. c. 17. 
Beausobre, Intr. 

588. The Jewish sects were, principally, three ; the 
Pharisees, the Saducees, both of whom are often ex- 
pressly mentioned in the New Testament, and theEs- 
senes, who are never mentioned there, but to whose 
tents there are probably some allusions. 

Lightfoot. Cunge. ib. 

589. The Pharisees were the most considerable 
sect, both for numbers and for influence ; but, though 
the multitude followed them, that title was confined 
to men of leisure, rank, and fortune. 

Lightfoot, ib. § 2. Beausobre, ib. 

590. The Pharisees acknowledged a twofold sense 
in Scripture, the literal and the hidden ; but princi- 
pally regarded the latter ; and, in giving it, indulged 
themselves very much in allegories. 

591. They received not only the written law, or 
the Scriptures, but also the unwritten, consisting of 
traditions, supposed to have been conveyed orally by 
their fathers, most of them from Moses ; reckoned 
these of equal authority with the Scripture ; and, by 
these, explained, or perverted it. 

Lightfoot, in Mat. xv. 2. Beausobre, ib. 

Mark vii. 3. " Traditions of the elders ;" because derived from 
their ancestors. 



182 



JEWISH SECTS. 



Mat. xxiii. 4. Mark vii. 9, 13. Luke xi. 46. "of the Phari- 
sees ;" because received and inculcated by them. 

59^. Their traditions included^ not only explications 
of Scripture^ but also institutions and ceremonies re- 
garding practice^ founded solely upon them. 

593. They affected great exactness in explaining 
the law^ and, likewise, in observing all the ceremonies 
enjoined, either by it, or by their traditions ; and were 
ostentatious, hypocritical, and superstitious in the ob- 
servance of them. 

Joseph. B. J. I. 1. c. 5. Beausobre, ib. 

Acts xxvi. 5. cocpt^sa-retTfiv aipeTiVj "the Strictest," exactest, 
most accurate " sect." 

594. The Pharasees believed the resurrection, and 
future rewards and punishments. 

Joseph, ib. c. 8. Beausobre, ib. Acts xxiii. 6, &c. 

595. But most of them believed, at the same time, 
a transmigration of at least some souls into other 
bodies. . 

Joseph. Beausobre, ib. 

John ix. 2. " Who did sin, this man," in a preexistent state, 
" or his parents, that he was born blind ?" 

596. The Saducees were not so numerous, nor so 
popular, as the Pharisees, but very considerable for 
their riches. 

lid. ib. Lightfoot in Mat. iii. 7. 

597. It is thought by many, that the Saducees 
received only the books of Moses ; but others are of 
opinion that they acknowledged the whole of the Old 
Testament. 



JEWISH SECTS. 183 

Grot, in Mat. xxii. 23. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 1 8. 
Beausobre, ib. 

598. They admitted only the literal and obvious 
sense of the Scriptures, rejecting all mystical and al- 
legorical interpretations. 

599. They received only the written law, and re- 
jected all traditions, with the opinions and practices 
founded upon them. 

Joseph. Ant. 1. 13. c. 10. 1. 18. c. 1. Beausobre, ib. 

600. They believed no spirit but God, denying the 
existence both of angels, and of human souls after 
death. 

Beausobre, ib. Acts xxiii. 8. Mat. xxii. 23, &c. 

601. The Saducees were thus, both in their prin- 
ciples, and in their practices, perfectly opposite to the 
Pharisees ; and a continual rivalship prevailed be- 
tween them. 

Joseph. Beausobre, ib. Mat. xxii. 34. Acts xxiii. 7, &c. 

602. The Saducees, notwithstanding the looseness 
of their opinions, were often in the magistracy and 
the priesthood, and were remarkable for their severity 
and cruelty 5 which accounts for the bitterness of their 
persecution against Christians, whose doctrine they 
all hated, and few of them seem to have embraced. 

Joseph. Ant. ib. and 1. 20. c. 9. Bel. Jud. 1. 2. c. 8. Beausobre, 
ib. Acts iv. 1. Acts v. 17, 23, &c. 

603. The Essenes were not very numerous, and 
lived in retirement, associating only with one another 5 



184 JEWISH SECTS. 

and^ for that reason, probably, fell not in our Saviour's 
way. 

' Joseph. Bel. Jud. 1. 2. c. 7, Philo. Mosheim, Hist. Eccl. sjec. 
1. p. 1. c. 2. § 7, &c. Lardner, Cred. p. 1. b. 1. c. 4. § 5. 
Beausobre, ib. Marsh's Michael. voL 4. ch. 15. sect. 2. &c. 

604. They rejected tradition, receiving only the 
Scriptures ; but they set no value on the literal sense 
of these, but on a spiritual sense, of which they sup- 
posed that to be only an emblem ; which they carried 
so far, as not to offer any sacrifices. 

605. Their doctrine was a composition of the ori- 
ental Philosophy, with the Jewish religion ; and, 
therefore, in many particulars, bore a great resem- 
blance to that of the Gnostics ; and was, perhaps, the 
immediate occasion of the rise of these heretics among 
the Jewish converts ; and, on this account, some pas- 
sages of the New Testament may refer almost equally 
to either. 

Michael. § 122—125, 136. 

Col. ii. IS. ©pTjTfcetei, rm ayyeXm, " worshipping of angels." 
The Essenes were curious about, and anxious to conceal, 
the names of angels, and used them as mediators. Ketru^pcc- 
Qtvtro, " deceive by subtle argument," suits their specula- 
tions, which were common to them with Gnostics, and de- 
rived from the same philosophy. 
Michael, ib. Knatchbul. in loc. 

606. The Essenes, reckoning all matter evil and 
impure, believed only the immortality of the soul, 
but not the resurrection of the body, which, they 



.JEWISH SECTS. 185 

thought, is at present the prison of the soul, and by 

being reunited to it, would only defile it. 

2 Tim. ii. 17,18. "The resurrection past already.'* They 

did not deny it, like the Saducees, but allegorized it. To 

this they were led, v. 16. "by profane and vain babblings," 

the speculations and refinements of their philosophy. 

Michael. § 144. 

607. In consequence of the same principle concern- 
ing matter, they lived with extreme abstemiousness, 
using only water, and the plainest sorts of food, mor- 
tified the body by severe austerities, and either for- 
bade marriage altogether, or permitted no view in 
contracting it, but continuing the species. 

Philo. Joseph. Beausobre. 

1 Tim. iv. 3 — 8. " Forbidding to marry," as unlawful. "To 
abstain from meats," excess of abstemiousness, or supersti- 
tion as to sorts. " God hath created, — every creature good, 
nothing to be refused," in opposition to the same practices, 
and the principle producing them. " Bodily exercise," all 
their austerities. 

Col. ii. 20—23. " Touch not, taste not, handle not." Max- 
ims of the Essenes and austere Gnostics. '' Doctrines of 
men," human refinements. " Neglecting," afflicting " the 
body, which is in no esteem," as being made of evil matter. 
Knatchb. in loc. 

] Tim. V. 23. " Use a little wine ;" contrasted with their no 
tions, and insinuates a reproof of them. 

608. They were, at once, a fanatical and supersti- 
tious sect, placing religion in silence and contempla- 
tion, imagining a sanctity and mysteries in numbers, 
rigid in their purifications, admitted only on a pro- 
bation, and distinguished into different orders. 

Philo. Joseph. Beausobre. 
24 



186 JEWISH OPINIONS. 

609. The Scribes and Lawyers, whom some have 
reckoned differeutj but without sufficient reason, were 
not a distinct sect, but a particular profession, for 
explaining the Scriptures, either in the synagogues, 
or in the schools ; and they were, generally at least, of 
the Pharisees. 

Cameron, in Mat. xxii. 23. Lightfoot, in Mat ii. 4. Beau- 

sobre, ib. 
" Scribes," often joined with "Pharisees," because they were 

of that sect : and often with " priests," because many were 

such, and all their assistants: as, to them, explaining the law 

originally belonged. Mat. ii. 4. 

610. Proselytes were such persons, of other nations, 
as had embraced the Jewish religion : and are, general- 
ly, reckoned to have been of two sorts ; proselytes of 
the gate, who only embraced a part of it ; and pro- 
selytes of righteousness, who embraced the whole of 
it ; though a few have denied this distinction. 

Maimon. de Proselyt. Joseph. Beausobre. 



SECT IV. 



Of Jewish Opinions, 

611. For understanding any writing, it is of great 
importance to know the opinions of those to whom it 
is addressed, concerning any part of the subject of it. 

612. Besides those opinions, which formed the ge- 
neral characteristics of the Jewish sects, others were 



JEWISH OPINIONS. 187 

oommon to them all, or, though inculcated chiefly by 
one sect, were not opposed by the rest ; and there are 
many of these, the knowledge of which throws light 
upon the Scriptures. 

613. Such of their opinions as were truly derived 
from the Scriptures, were coincident with the doctrines 
there taught ; the knowledge of them is the same with 
knowledge of the sense of the passages which teach 
them ; and explications of them may contribute to 
the interpretation of Scripture. 

614. But many of their opinions either arose from 
their perversions of Scripture, or were taken from the 
notions of the neighbouring nations ; and the know- 
ledge of these is necessary for explaining such pas- 
sages of Scripture, as allude to, reprove, or confute 
them. 

615. Their doctrine concerning the moral law, 
that it regarded only overt acts, and required only 
external obedience, but extended not to the inward 
motions, affections, or intentions, gives a key to such 
passages of scripture as are levelled against it. 

D. Kimchi, in Psal. Ixvi. 18. 

Mat V. 20. " Righteousness of the scribes,'^^ &c. that is, incul- 
cated bj them, namely, external, v. 21 — 26. " Murder." 
V. 27-— 32. « Adultery." v. 33— 37. " Oaths." v. 38—42. 
« Retaliation." v. 43—40. " Hatred." Ch. vi. 1—18. 
" Alms, prayer, fasting." 

616. The opinions of the Jews concerning the Mes- 
siah, which prevailed at the time of Christ's coming, 
were, that he was then to appear;^ that he would be 



188 JEWISH OPINIONS. 

a prophet/ and work miracles f but^ chiefly, that he 
would be their temporal king, and raise them to the 
empire of the world -^ which opinions not only pre- 
vailed, likewise, among the Samaritans, but gained 
some reception among other nations ; and they illus- 
trate many passages, and account for many facts, in 
the New Testament. 

Joseph. Sueton. Tacitus. 

1 Mat. xxvi. 63. Luke ii. 25, 26. iii. 15. xxii. 66. John i. 19, 
£4. iv. 25, 29, 42. x. 24. 

2 John i. 21. iv. 25, &c. vi. 14. 
Lardner, Credib. p. 1. b. 1. c. 5. § 1, 3, 4. 

3 John vii. 32. 

^ Hence John met with a general welcome, from the general 
expectation ; Jesus with a less general, from their false idea. 
He was always rejected by the rulers, who perceived his 
contrariety to that idea ; better received by the people, who 
were less discerning ; deserted by many who once followed 
him, because he answered not their idea. Ffe was seldom 
explicit in declaring himself the Christ, in order to avoid 
the consequences of their explaining it by their idea ; not 
so in John iv. 26. Mark v. 19. Luke viii. 39. because there 
was no risk of these consequences. He encouraged their 
procession (which was a proclaiming of him king, 2 Kings 
ix. 7.) into Jerusalem, because no inconvenience could then 
arise : they were soon eager for his crucifixion, because dis- 
appointed in their hope ; but they grew fond of his disciples. 
Acts V. 26 and their hope revived. 
Lardner, ib. Macknight, Harm. § 26. 

617. The Jews believed that justification belonged 
peculiarly to their nation ; and that, on account of the 
piety of their ancestors, their knowledge of the law, 
and the observance of its ceremonies ; notions confuted 



JEWISH OPINIONS, 189 

in the epistles, (particularly to the Romans,) and nec- 
essary to be known for our understanding the confu- 
tation. 
Michael. § 129. 

618. They thought that God had elected them to 
be his people, so absolutely, that he was bound to 
fulfil his promises to their nation, unconditionally ; 
and that a prophet ought not to pronounce predic- 
tions against them ; but, on the contrary, to intercede 
for them, and wish his own name to be expunged ; an 
opinion which is combated in some passages of Scrip- 
ture, and gives a key to them. 

Michael. § 130, 132. 

Rom. ix. 1 — 5. The subject very cautiously introduced, v. 
6 — 29. The opinion directly confuted, v. 30 — x. 21. Par- 
ticular application to themselves. Ch. xi. God's promise, 
notwithstanding, kept. 

619. The Jews, after their captivity, entertained 
many groundless opinions, borrowed, probably, from 
the Chaldeans, and confirmed by their intercourse 
with the Egyptians, Syrians, and Arabians ; the ex- 
travagant notions, for instance, of all except the Sad- 
ucees, concerning angels, their names, their orders, 
and their ofiices. 

620. They likewise adopted magical notions, and 
addicted themselves to arts and superstitions cor- 
respondent to them ; to which there are some refer- 
ences in Scripture. 

Michael. § 125. 

Mat. xii. 24, 27. Acts xix. 13. 



190 JEWISH OPINIONS. 

621. There has been an opinion of considerable 
antiquity among the Jews, probably borrowed from 
the heathens, that it w^as unlawful to pronounce the 
name tl)tl^ ; and some even scrupled to write it ; a 
superstition which has had a great effect on their 
copies of the bible, especially the latter MSS. and 
those of the oriental Jews. 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. 158, 320, 355, 540. Walton, Prol. 8, § 19. 

622. In consequence of this superstition, that name 
has, in their copies, been often changed into other 
names of God CD%*l^i< or OHi^, in some places where 
the very connexion requires it,^ in many where it is 
still found in some MSS.,^ and in others where it is 
indicated by parallel texts and the usage of Scrip- 
ture;^ and in all these cases it may be safely deter- 
mined that tl)tl'' is the original and genuine reading. 

Ken. ib. and p. 354. 

^ Gen. xxii. 8. Abraham says n^n^ CD^nh'S*, ** God will pro- 
vide." But it should be mn^ ; for v. 14. it is said mn' ^^?T; 

bj which mistake in v. 8. and a wrong pointing in v. 14. 
(not nxp;, as there, but nxT « shall be seen") the latter has 
been obscured and misunderstood. It should be, " Abraham 
called the name of that place Jehovah -jireh, because he had 
said that day in the mount, Jehovah will provide." He did 
say so, V. 8. and God had provided, v. 13. 
Ken. ib. p. 510. 

^ Printed ^ns^, MSS. T])'n\ Gen. xx. 4. MSS. 9. 
2 Kings xix 23. MSS. 14. 

Psal. ii. 4. MSS. 61. Isa. vi. 1. MSS. 51. v. 8. MSS. 44. v. 11. 
MSS. 33. Isa vii. 14. MS5. 25. v. 20. MSS. 18. 

Printed a^nbx, Isa. vii. 13. MS. 1. 

Ken. ib. p. 510, 354, 522, 503, et in loc. Lowth in loc. 

3 1 Chron. xi. 19. corrected by 2 Sam. xxiii. 17, and by usage. 



JEWISH WRITERS. 191 

1 Sara. xxiv. 5. xxvi. 11. 1 Kings xxi. 3. 
Psal. hviii. mn' six times, MS. ; three of which also Judg. 
V. 4, 5. 

Ken. ib. p. 155, &c. 

623. In consequence of the same superstition, the 
Jewish transcribers sometimes interpolated ^-3"1K be- 
fore tl)tl\ omitting likewise CD^17N when it followed 
this latter, in order to prevent a reader's inadvert- 
ently pronouncing the ineffable name. 

2 Sam. vii. 23, 24, This is done six times ; l^t corrected by 

1 Chron. xvii. 21, 22. by the punctuation, by some MSS. and 

by the Chald. Syr. and Vulg. 
Isa. hi. 1. corrected by Lukeiv. 18. by 70. Vulg. Arab. MSS. 

also V, 11. 
Zeph. 1. 7. MSS. 8. 

Ken. Diss, 1. p. 459, 510, 503, et in loc. Lowth in loe. 



SECT. V. 



Of the Jewish Writers. 

624. Learning includes the knowledge of books^ 
as well as of facts and opinions ; and there are dif- 
ferent kinds of books useful in Scripture criticism ; 
the first of which is the books of the Jewish writers^ 
exclusive of their targums, which have been already 
mentioned. (Ch. IV. Sect. I.) 



192 JEWISH WRITERS. 

625. Philo, a learned Jew of Alexandria, wrote 
soon after the birth of Christy and several of his works 
are extant. 

626. They contain many quotations from the Scrip- 
tures, which may show how the text then stood in the 
original, or at least in the 70 version. 

Exod. XX. 3, 4, 5, 6. Late editions have these verses as one 
commandment; but Philo, as two. v. 17. as two, in Edit, 
but, as one, in Philo, and in most MSS. 

Ken. Di|s. 2. p. 351. Diss. Gen. § 15, 29, 165, et in loc. 

627. They contain accounts of many of the customs 
of the Jews ; of their opinions, especially such as were 
derived from the oriental Philosophy, to which he 
was addicted; and of facts, particularly relating to 
their state under the Roman emperors ; fit to throw 
light on many passages of Scripture. 

Simon, V. T. c. 17. Beausobre, Introd. 

628. Josephus, a priest and a Pharisee, flourished 
soon after the death of Christ, and wrote after the 
taking of Jerusalem by the Romans. 

His works are, Jewish Antiquities; Jewish War; Against Ap- 
pion ; His own Life. 

629. As he often translated the Scriptures, and as, 
much oftener, his subject coincides with them, some of 
his works are of great use for showing how they then 
Stood, and may assist in either confirming or correct- 
ing readings. 

Exod. XX. 3 — 6, 17. Antiq. Jud. 1. 3. c. 5. 
He confirms the chronology of the 70, from the creation to 
Abraham. Antiq. 1. 1. 



JEWISH WRITEKS. l93 

630. His writings contain accounts of many Jewish 
customs and opinions, and of the diiferent sects, which 
contribute very much to the ilhistration of Scrip- 
ture. 

631. They contain many facts, particularly such 
as relate to the civil and religious state of the Jews 
about the time of Christ, which being supposed, 
alluded to, or mentioned, in passages of Scripture, 
enable us to enter into the meaning of these passages. 

632. His accurate and minute detail of many of the 
events of his own time, and, above all, of the Jewish 
war, and the siege and destruction of Jerusalem, 
affords us the means of perceiving the accomplish- 
ment of many of Christ's predictions, especially of his 
circumstantial prediction of the downfall of the Jewish 
nation and religion. 

633. The Talmud contains the oral, or unwritten 
law, which had been handed down by tradition ; it was 
held in high estimation by the Jews, and, by many of 
them, preferred to the Scripture; but there were 
always some who thought more reasonably of it. 

Buxtorf. Abbrev. p. 221 — 225. Ken. Diss. 2, p. 441. Diss. 
Gen. § 32, 

634. It consists of two parts ; the first, the Misnah, 
or text, which was written ; according to some, in 
the second, according to others, in the fourth or fifth 
century. 

Ken, ib. 

25 



194 JEWISH WRITERS. 

635. The second^ the Gemara, or commentary oil 
the Misnah ; which is twofold ; one compiled by the 
Jews of Palestine, it is supposed by some between the 
years 300 and 400, by others, about 600, which (to- 
gether with the Misnah) is called the Jerusalem Tal- 
mud; the other, about 200 years later, by the eastern 
Jews, and called the Talmud of Babylon, which is 
most esteemed ; but both are full of absurd fables. 

Ken. ib, 

636. The Talmud contains many quotations from 
Scripture ; and in these are many readings different 
from those of the latter and Masoretic copies ; in 
adopting which, caution is necessary, on account of its 
inaccuracy ; several being false, but several also 
preferable, and some of considerable importance. 

Ken. Diss. 2. ib. Diss. Gen. § 33, 34, 35. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. 
c- £0. Buxtorf Anticrit. 1. 2. c. 12. Capel. 

Lev. xvi. 11. "Aaron shall lay both (n^) his Aawf?." Heb. 
absurd ; but the Talmud has VT ; and so the Keri, and 
above 30 MSS. 

2 Chron. xxvi. 5. " Zechariah had understanding (HN'ia) in the 
visions of God." This is obscure and unusual. The Tal- 
mud has nN'T:3 " in the fear ;" and so about 50 MSS. 70. 
Arab. Syr. 

Ken. ib. and in loc. 

637. The Talmud can give no assistance in interpret- 
ing Scripture, by its explications of particular texts, 
which are generally allegorical, scarcely ever literal ; 
or by its history and chronology, which are totally er- 
roneous ; but it gives considerable assistance, by pre- 
serving many Jewish traditions, maxims, opinions, 



JEWISH WRITERS. 195 

and customs; which are mentioned or alluded to in 
Scripture. 
Lightfoot Pr^f. in Mat. Simon, V. T. 1. 3. c. 6. 

638. The Masora is a collection of traditionary re- 
marks^ concerning the texts of the Old Testament j 
and is twofold, the greater, and the lesser. 

Buxtorf. Tiberias. Walton, Prol. 8. § 1. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. 
c. 24, 25, 26. Houbig. Prol. c. 1. a. 3. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 
262—291. Diss. Gen. § 37—40. 

639. It contains remarks of very different kinds, and 
of different degrees of importance ; which, however, 
may be all reduced to two heads. The first is called 
by some, the ancient Masora, and regards the various 
readings of the text ; it includes Ittur Sopherim (ab- 
latio scribarum), Tikkun Sopherim (correctio scriba- 
rum), Keri, or various readings collected from MSS. 
agreeing most with the oldest MSS. and, except four- 
teen, found all in some MSS. still extant, some conjec- 
tural emendations (severim), and the defective places 
marked by a piska. 

Simon, ib.c. 26. Walton, Prol. 8, § 18—26. Houbig. ib. 
Ken. ib. 

640. The other part of it consists of minute obser- 
vations concerning the number of letters, words, verses 
and sections, in each book, and in the whole Bible ; 
concerning their position, and irregularities in writ- 
ing them ; and concerning the vowel points and ac- 
cents. 

Walton, ib. § 2—10. Simon, ib. c. 25. Ken. ib. 



196 JEWISH WRITERS. 

641. Some of the Jews, very absurdly, ascribe the 
Masora to Moses, and most of them to Ezra, though a 
few of them acknowledge their ignorance of its age, or 
allow it to be modern ; but it is a collection of remarks 
made at diiferent times, begun, most probably, in the 
6th century, in imitation of the Arabians, containing, 
however, observations more ancient, gradually carried 
on by different persons, particularly the Jews of Tibe- 
rias, and ended about the beginning of the 9th cen- 
tury. 

Walton, ib. § 11. 12, 18. Simon, ib. c. 25. and 1. 5. c. 23. 
Houbig. ib. Ken. Diss. 2. ib. & Diss. Gen. § 40. 

642. It has been extolled by the Jews in general, 
and by many Christians, as sufficient for correcting all 
the mistakes which had crept into the copies of the 
Bible, and for preventing any mistakes from creeping 
in afterwards ; but to these purposes it is totally in- 
adequate; the latter part of it is insignificant and 
useless ; the former part is useful, but neither accu- 
rate and complete, nor always judicious. 

Walton, ib. § 13 — 17. Simon, ib. Ken. ib. 

643. The Jews have a Cabala, which, too, they 
ridiculously represent as a collection of traditions 
handed down from Moses, but of which they probably 
received the idea, either from the Babylonians, during 
their captivity, or, from the oriental philosophy, after 
their return ; it is employed in deducing mysteries 
from letters, words, or points, considered in certain 
fanciful lights. 

D*Espeires de Text. Heb. Disp. 2. Dub. 5. Hottinger. Thesaur, 



JEWISH WRITERS. 197 

Philol. 1. 1. c. 3. § 5. Morin. Exercit. 2. c. 7, 8, 9. Walton, 
Prol. 8. § 30, &c. Simon, ib. 1. 3. c. 23. 

644. It is of different kinds ; Gematria, deducing 
mysteries from a word^ by comparing it with, or ex- 
plaining it by another, whose letters, as used in nota- 
tion, amount to the same sum;^ Notarikon,by making 
each letter stand for a word, of which it is the initial, 
and thus from one word forming a sentence f Permu- 
tation, by combining the letters of a word differently, 
changing their order, or substituting in their place 
others supposed analogous to them, for their position 
in the alphabet, or some other reason equally chi- 
merical.^ 

lid. Walton, ib. § 34—37. Simon, ib. I. 3. c. 6. 

* Zech. iii. 8. ^ Exod. xv. 11. ^ Exod. xxiii. 23. 

646. Many of the Jew^s set a high value on the Ca- 
bala, and even prefer it to the Scripture, as giving the 
spiritual meaning of the law ; but it is truly a fanciful 
and impious method of wresting Scripture to what- 
ever sense one pleases, equally void of solidity and 
use. 

Walton, ib. § 30, 38. 

646. The Jews have, likewise, a practical Cabala, 
which is a species of magic, being a method of using 
letters and words as charms for curing diseases, work- 
ing miracles, obtaining intercourse with angels, and 
the like ; and this is not only useless, but detestable. 

Walton, ib. § 33. 



198 JEWISH WRITERS. 

647. All the other Jewish writers are comprehended 
under the name of Rabbins ; and their works are of 
different kinds^ and different degrees of utility. 

648. Though most of them extol the Masora, and 
adhere to the text, as determined by it ; yet many of 
them bear testimony to the variation of copies, and in 
their quotations give readings different from the re- 
ceived ones ; and some have made collections of 
various readings, as of the oriental and occidental 
MSS. of Ben Asher and Ben Naphtali. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. § 41, 42, 43. 

649. Some of the Rabbinical writers employ them- 
selves wholly on the grammar of the Hebrew language, 
which they took from the Arabians, and in which they 
have affected great subtlety ; by this they contributed 
much to the knowledge of that language, and, conse- 
quently, to the understanding of the Old Testament ; 
but all that is useful in them may now be much more 
easily learned from later w^orks. 

650. In their interpretations of Scripture, they are 
either literal, allegorical, or cabalistical ; and some 
of them unite all these three modes. 

Bechai. 

651. Many of them, especially the most ancient, 
are wholly set on allegorizing the Scriptures ; and 
these are of no use, except their fables happen now 
and then to throw light on opinions referred to in 
Scripture. v 

Jarchi. 



JEWISH WRITERS. 199 

652. Their cabalistical interpretations are ridicu- 
lous and altogether useless. 

Ramban. Abraham Seba. Moses Negara, &c. 

653. The literal method of interpreting Scripture 
was revived among the Jews, by some who rejected 
all their traditions, allowing authority only to the 
written word, explained according to reason, and 
were, on this account, called Caraites, and regarded 
as a distinct sect, from about the middle of the 8th 
century. 

Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c 27. 1. 3. c. 5, 6. & Catalog. Auth. Jud. 
Beausobre, Intr. Aaron. 

654. Many of the Rabbinical writers who censure 
the Caraites, and do not reject all tradition, yet em- 
ploy themselves chiefly in finding out the literal sense 
of Scripture, though often with too minute attention 
to the subtleties of their Grammar, or too great an 
intermixture of their philosophical notions. 

Simon, ib. 

Aben Ezra. Maimonides. Kimchi. Levi Ben Gerson. Abar- 
banel. Mordochai. Lombroso. Aben Melech. 

655. The Rabbinical writers have many explica 
tions of Scripture handed down to them by tradition, 
or contained in MSS. to which there is not general 
access ; several of them just, and, therefore, highly 
useful. 

656. They likewise apply much to the study of the 
Hebrew language, and have great knowledge of it, 
which enables them to give the sense of Scripture ; 



200 CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 

and, particularly, they preserve many idioms, phrases 
and modes of expression, used by their ancestors, 
which best illustrjite texts in which similar ones 
occur. 
Mat. xii. 36. " Every idle word {ptjfAoc 'ccpyov) they shall give 
account thereof," their easy, ordinary conversation, whether 
good or bad, (Kimchi in Psal. i. S. ;) we shall be examined 
concerning our slighter discourse, as well as our more de- 
liberate. 



SECT. VI. 



Of the Ancient Christian Writers. 

657. The writings of the ancient Christians, called 
the Fathers, are of some use in criticism, both with 
respect to the reading, and the sense. 

658. They contain many quotations from the orig- 
inal, at least of the New Testament ; and all have 
agreed, that these may supply various readings, some 
of them genuine ; though not concerning the degree 
of authority due to them. 

659. Some, affirming that they frequently quote 

inaccurately, or only from memory, determine that 

they give no authority, or very little, to any reading 

which is not established by MSS. 

Michael. § 30. PfaJBT. c. 12. can. 3. Whitby Exam. Millii, 1. 
1. c. 1. 



CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 201 

§60. Others, particularly Popish writers, think, 
that their works being more ancient than any MSS. 
now extant, the quotations found in them are the best 
means of settling the genuine reading, and ought to 
have the greatest authority. 

Dupin. Diss. Prelim. Michael, ib. 

661. The truth seems to be, that they generally 
quoted Scripture very exactly, as they had it in their 
copies ; and, therefore, when a reading followed by 
them agrees with any ancient MS., it is, probably, 
the genuine reading. 

Wetstein, Prol. c. Id. can. 14. PfaE ib. 

Mai vi. 1." Do not fAgjjjttac-yp^v, alms." So most copies. But 
o'tKuioa-vyijv, " righteousness,'* in 2 ancient MS8., Vulg., most 
Fatliers, and most agreeable to the Scripture style. 
Mill. & Pearce in loc. 

662. The total silence of the Fathers concerning a 
reading which would have confirmed their opinion in a 
controverted point, justly renders that reading suspi- 
cious. 

Wetstein, ib. 

663. The Fathers generally take their quotations 
from the 70 version ; and the Latin Fathers quote 
Scripture according to the Latin versions then in use ; 
they therefore show what was then read in these ver- 
sions. 

664. Concerning the usefulness of the Fathers for 
the interpretation of Scripture, there are very different 
opinions ; some, particularly the generality of Popish 

26 



202 CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 

writers^ reckon their authority absolute^ and their in- 
terpretations sacred. 

665. Others, considering their interpretations, as 
received by the most ancient of them from the apostles, 
or their immediate hearers, and successively transmit- 
ted to the rest, allow them so great authority, espe- 
cially when several agree in them, that they ought to 
be adopted, except there be the most cogent reasons 
against them. 

666. Others consider their interpretations as entitled 
to no authority, except what they derive from their 
appearing just, on a fair examination of them ; but 
differ concerning the degree of this authority. 

667. Most of the Fathers being totally ignorant of 
the Hebrew language, and many of tlie Latin Fathers 
ignorant of the Greek, as well as of- the rules of criti- 
cism ; their literal explications of Scripture are often 
lame and superficial. 

668. In their polemical works, they often stretch 
the Scripture, in order to favour the doctrines which 
they maintained. 

669. In their homilies, when they stick to the lite- 
ral sense, they study not so much to determine it with 
accuracy, as to accommodate the most obvious mean- 
ing to their subject, or to apply it to practical pur- 
poses in a rhetorical manner. 

Chrvsostom, Basil. 



CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 203 

670. Even such of them as did not wholly neglect 
the literal sense of Scripture, are fond of allegorizing 
it, and drawing from it mystical meanings, which are 

; altogether fanciful, and of no use. 

Origen. Augustine. Hilary. Ambrose. Cyril. 

671. The later Fathers generally borrowed the in- 
terpretations of some of the earlier, with some varia- 
tions. 

Hilary, Origen's. Ambrose, Origen's, and Basil's. Cassiodo- 
rus, Augustine's. Rabban, Jerome's. 

672. It became customary, in later times, to make 
compendious collections of the different explications 
of texts of Scripture given by the Fathers ; which 
were called Catenae 5 and contain, some good, and 
many trifling. 

Procop. Nicet. Lipoman. 

673. Many just interpretations of Scripture, and 
some good rules for interpreting it, may be collected 
from the works of some of the Fathers, and will be of 
great advantage. 

Origen. Augustin. de Doctrin. Christ. Hieronym. Comment. 
&c. Theodoret. Quest, and Comment. 



204 CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 



SECT. VII. 



Of Modern Christian Writers, 

674. Ever since the revival of learning, Christians 
have bestowed considerable attention on the Scrip- 
tures ; and, besides improved editions, and versions 
of them, have produced many works, of several kinds, 
which contribute much to scripture criticism. 

675. Collections of various readings are the only 
means of making MSS., copies, and versions, exten- 
sively useful, by enabling those who have not access 
to all or many of them, to form a judgment concern- 
ing the genuine readings of Scripture ; and many such 
collections have been made, first, with respect to the 
New Testament, and, more lately, with respect to 
the Old. 

Laurent. Valla, Annotat. Erasmus, Comment. Stevens, 
Nov. Test. Grotius, Comment. Hammond, Annot. Lucas 
Brugensis, Comment, in Evang. Walton, Polyglot, torn. 6. 
Curcellseus, Fell, Gerard of Maestricht, Mill, Kuster, Wet- 
stein, Bengelius, Griesbach, in editions of the N. T. Jo. 
Hen. Michaelis, Houbigant, Kennicott, in editions of the O T. 

676. Most of the capital editions of the Scriptures 
are accompanied with prolegomena, or dissertations, 
which contain many critical observations, particularly 
concerning the true reading of Scripture, and the 
means of determining it ; and there are many other 



CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 205 

treatises^ adapted chiefly or only to the same pur- 
pose. 

Walton, Proleg. Houbigant, Proleg. Kennicott, Dissert. 

General. 
Mill. Kuster. Wetstein. Griesbach, Proleg. 
Morin. Exercitat. Bibl. Capell. Critic. Sac. Kennicott's 

Dissertations and Remarks on Select Passages in the O. T. 

Michaelis's Introd. Marsh's Translation. 
Eichhorn's Introd. Campbell's Dissertations. 

677. Concordances are useful^ not only for readily 
finding particular passages of Scripture, but for com- 
paring such as are parallel, and for discovering the 
meaning of words and phrases in the several places 
where they are used ; and there are many works of 
this kind adapted to the Bible, both in the original 
languages, and in that of the several versions. 

Heb. 0. T. Buxtorf. Calasio. Taylor. 

Greek N. T. Stevens. Schmid. Xistus Betuleius. 

70 Version. Kircher. Abrah. Trommius. 

Vulgate. Hugo Cardinal. Alberstad. Luca. Pellican. R. 

& H. Stevens. 
Jun. & Tremel. 
English Version. Downham. Cotton. Newman. Cambridge. 

Cruden. 

678. Commentaries are professed explications of 
Scripture ; and there are many such explications, 
either of the whole Scripture, or of particular books, 
by Christians of all denominations ; but which have 
very different degrees of merit. 



206 CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 

679. The commentaries of Popish writers are gen- 
erally filled with the sev eral explications of the differ- 
ent Fathers^ most of which are merely allegorical ; or 
with scholastic subtleties ; and some of them contain 
almost nothing else. 

Cornelius a Lapide. Pererius. Leo Castro. 

680. Butj many of the Popish commentators, along 
with the opinions of the Fathers, and a superfluity of 
controversial dissertations, are at pains to investigate 
the true and literal sense of Scripture, from the nature 
of the language,^ the comparison of the ancient ver- 
sions,^ or the writings of the Rabbins,^ or from several 
of these together.* 

1 Cajetan. Oleaster. Tostatus. Ribera. Malvenda. Mari- 
ana. Nicolaus Lyranus. Paulus Burgensis. Laurentius 
Valla. 

2 Bonfrerius. Genebrard. Bellarmin. 
^ Serarius. De Mujs. 

4 Titelman. Augustinus Eugubiiius. Maldonatus. Estius. 
Gordon. 

681. There are many commentaries on the Scrip- 
tures, by protestant writers, written in very different 
manners : some of them show no great knowledge of 
the original languages, nor are very critical ; but are 
chiefly occupied either about theological questions, or 
practical observations. 

Luther. Calvin. Zuinglius. Gallasius. Peter Martyr. 

682. Others, along with theological and practi- 
cal disquisitions, give a critical explication of the 
sense of Scripture. 

Molerus. Musculus. 



CHRISTIAN WRITERS. 207 

683. Others confine themselves, wholly, to a criti- 
cal explication of tlie Scriptures, and apply to it, 
either grammatical knowledge of the language,^ the 
ancient versions,^ the kindred languages/ the exam- 
ination of Scripture itself/ or the several kinds of 
learning, historical, rabbinical,* classical,^ which can 
be conducive to it ; or several of these means to- 
gether.^ 

* Mercerus. Fagius. Bain. Forerius. Vatablus. Masius. 

Codurcus. Liveleius. Ainsworth. 

2 Wall's Critical Notes. 

3 De Dieu. Pocock. Schultens. 

* Locke. Taylor. Pearce. Benson. Brennius. Crellius. 
Slichtingius. 

* Munster. Lightfoot. 
^ Castalio. Casaubon. 

^ Drusius. Grotius. Patrick. Lowth. Hammond. Whitby. 
Pool. Macknight. Horseley on Hosea. 

684. There are many observations or dissertations 
on particular passages, which generally consider them 
with greater accuracy than commentaries on whole 
books, but are conducted on different principles, and 
executed with different degrees of skill. 

Hackspan. Knatchbull. 

685. There are several treatises employed in laying 
down general principles of criticism, or rules for the 
explication of Scripture. 

Arise Montani prsefationes. De la Haye quaest. preliminar. 
Sixti Senens. Bibliotheca sancta. Lindanus de optimo genere 
interpretationis. Masii praefationes. Matth. Flacc. Illyrici 
Clavis scripturge. Hottinger. Glassii Philolog. sacra. Lowth 



208 PAGAN WRITEllS. 

prselect. de sacra poesi Hebrseorum. Herder's Dialogues on 
Hebrew Poetry. Campbell's Preliminary Dissertations and 
Gospels. Macknight on Gospels and Epistles. 

686. There are many works written on particular 
subjects related to the Scriptures, and of great use for 
understanding them. 

Usser. et Capell. sacra chronolog. Bocharti, Phaleg. et Hiero- 
zoicon. Spencer de legibus Hebraeorum. 

687. Among the works of Christian writers, useful 
in Scripture criticism, must be reckoned Harmonies ; 
but these may be considered with greater advantage 
afterwards. 



SECT.Vni. 

Of Pagan Writers. 

688. Even Pagan writers, especially the ancient, 
may be rendered, in different ways, subservient to the 
illustration of Scripture. 

689. Pagan writers use words and phrases coinci- 
dent with, or analogous to, those of the sacred writers, 
and fit for ascertaining the meaning, or showing the 
force and propriety, of these. 

Tsa. i. 5. " On what part will ye strike again ?'* 
Ovid. Pont. 2. 7. 42. Euripid. Here. Fur. 1245. 
Lowth's Isaiah in loc. 

690. Pagan writers often employ the same images 
with the sacred, so as to throw light on their import, 



PAGAN WRITERS. 209 

and, generally, so as to set off their superior excel- 
lence. 

Isa. ii. 4. " Beat swords into ploughshares," &c. an image of 
peace. "Falx ex ense." 

Lowth in loc. 
Joel, iii 10. "Ploughshares into swords," &c. an image of war, 
** Falces in ensem." Virg. Georg. i. 506. &c. " De rastri 
pondere cassis." Ovid Fast. i. 697, &c. 
Lowth, ib. 

Isa. viii. 6, 7, 8. " Soft waters of Shiloah, the waters 

of the river (Euphrates) strong and many,'* &c. By these 
images, the two countries are finely contrasted. " In Ty- 
berim Orontes." Juvenal. "Euphrates ibat moUior." 
Virg. ^n. 8. 1. 726. the same image, but without the con- 
trast.' 

Lowth in loc. 
Isa. xi. 6 — 8. There is here greater beauty, variety, and force, 
than in the images of the renewal of the golden age, in Virg. 
Eel. 4. 1. 22, 24. Horat. Theocr. 
Jones, Poes, Asiat. Comment, p. 380. Lowth in loc. 
Isa. xxix. 8. xxxi. 4, 5. xxxii. 2. xlv. 2. xlix. 2. 

Lowth in loc. 
Rev. viii. 8. " A great mountain ;" a warlike hero. Virg. ^n. 

12.1.701. 
V. 10. " A great star ;" a prince. Homer, 11. 4. 1. 75, 

691. Pagan writers contain sentiments, opinions, 
and facts, which, in different ways, cast light on pas- 
sages of Scripture. 

Dan, ii. 32, 33. Four empires, and periods of time, are repre- 
sented by gold, silver, brass, and iron; agreeably to the re- 
ceived opinion concerning the four ages of the world. 
Hesiod. Newton on Proph. 
27 



210 PAGAN WRITERS. 

Psal. Ix. 8. cviii. 9, " Moab is my wash-pot ;" an emblem of 
being low and contemptible, which is illustrated by the story 
of Amasis forming a bason into an image. Herodot. 1. 6. 
Findlay, Vindicat. p. 2. c. 1. s. 5. 



PART 11. 



THE OBJECTS OF SCRIPTURE CRITICISM. 

692. The objects of Scripture criticism are^ the 
several sorts of difficulties which occur in the sacred 
writings, and which must be removed, in order to our 
rightly understanding these writings. 

693. As all difficulties must regard either the read- 
ing, or the sense, criticism is twofold ; — corrective or 
emendatory, being employed in determining the true 
reading ; — and explanatory or interpretative, discov- 
ering the genuine sense ; under the latter of which 
may naturally enough be comprehended whatever 
regards the beauties or the peculiarities of composition 
in Scripture. 

Harris's Philolog. Inquir. part 1. 

694. Difficulties regarding the sense are of differ- 
ent kinds ; there are difficulties — in separate words, 
— in construction, idiom, phrases, and figures, — in 
scope, and connexion, and other circumstances, — in 
reconciling Scripture to itself — to the principles of 
reason and morality— -to history ; and there are diffi- 
culties of a complicated nature. These give a proper 
division of explanatory criticism, to which we shall 
proceed, after having given a view of the emendatory. 



212 NATURE OF A VARIOUS READING. 



CHAP. L 



Corrective^ or Emendatory Criticism. 

695. The Scriptures, as well as all other writings, 
being preserved and diffused by transcription, were 
unavoidably liable to be corrupted ; and in the copies 
of them, different readings are actually found ; whence 
arises the necessity of criticism, for determining the 
true reading. 

696. In order to this, it will be proper to ascertain 
the nature of a various reading — to point out the sour- 
ces of false readings — to distinguish the several kinds 
of them — and to lay down rules for judging of the 
genuine reading. 



SECT. I. 

The Nature of a Various Reading. 

697. However plain the meaning of a various read- 
ing may seem to be, it has been sometimes understood 
so as to introduce confusion or mistake. 

698. Some have allowed the name, only to such 
readings as may possibly have proceeded from the au- 
thor ; biit this restriction is improper. 

Whitby Exam. V, L. Mill passim. Kuster Prsef. 



NATURE OF A VARIOUS READING. 213 

699. According to this definition, all the differences 
of copies are reducible to four heads. 

700. First, such as are improperly called various 
readings ; solecisms, absurdities, palpable blunders of 
transcribers, typographical errors, differences in syl- 
labication, &c. which take in the greatest part of the 
variations found in copies ; but are to be reckoned^ 
some depravations, others trifles, none various read- 
ings. 

Whitby Partit. § 3. and passim. Kuster, ib. 

701. But, to refuse these the name of various read- 
ings, is impi*oper ; for it is to call that no reading, 
which is actually read in some copies ; and it is use- 
less ; for the merit, and the real occasion, of a read- 
ing, are often matters of diJ0S.cult discussion. 

Kuster, ib. Kennic. Diss. 1. p. 271. 

702. Second, such as it is doubtful whether they 
be improperly various readings, or whether they be 
properly such, as capable of having come from the 
author; readings, for instance, in quotations, which 
may have been taken either from a copy, or from 
memory. 

703. Such, too, ought to be considered as various 
readings, till reason appear for rejecting them on 
examination. 

704. Third, such as are real and proper various 
readings, since any of them might have been the orig- 
inal reading, but of no importance ; synonymous 



214 NATURE OF A VAUIOUS READING. 

words^ for example, or such as alter not the sense ; 
and of this sort there are many. 
Kuster, ib. 

705. Fourth, such readings as are both real and 
important, as making an alteration in the sense 5 and 
these are not very numerous. 

Kuster, ib. Whitby partit. § 4. 

706. This division of various readings, when put 
into accurate expressions, amounts to no more than, 
that some are genuine, and some corruptions, some 
important, and some trivial ; but it does not imply 
that all these sorts are not truly various Peadiags. 

707. To speak properly ; wherever, in two copies 
of a writing, there is a difference, that difference 
forms a various reading ; except only when it regards 
merely the manner of syllabication. 

Kuster, ib. Marsh's Michael, ch. 6. sect. 4. 

iptjvi} or sipv^f}, ccvrsi or uvrt, si^ii or ept^, Keti or ke, &c. 

708. Every reading, different from what was orig- 
inally written by the author, is a false reading or a 
corruption ; and every various reading shows that 
there is a corruption in some of the copies ; for two 
different readings cannot both be the original one of 
the author ; but every various reading is not itself a 
corruption, for it may be the very one which proceed- 
ed from the author. 



SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 215 



SECT. II. 



The Sources of Fake Readings. 

709. For determining between various readings, it 
is of great use to know the sources of false readings ; 
which are reducible to two, Chance^ and Design. 

Marsh's Michael, ch. 6. sect. 6, &c. De Rossi, Var. Lect. 
Frol. 

710. To chance are to be ascribed all the mistakes 
made by a transcriber, without his intending them at 
the time, or perceiving them afterwards. 

711. Haste and carelessness have produced many 
mistakes, might introduce false readings of every pos- 
sible sort, and have rendered some copies extremely 
inaccurate. 

712. A transcriber might become inattentive and 
absent ; and write, not what w^as in his copy, but what- 
ever he happened then to be thinking of; to which 
cause have been owing some false readings, and from 
which might proceed such as seem the most unaccount- 
ble. 

Pfaif. de gen. lect. N. T. c. 8. § 3. 

713. For discerning, fully, the occasions of false 
readings, it ought to be observed, that, as a transcrib- 
er sometimes wrote from a copy before him, so, at 



216 SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 

other times, he wrote from the mouth of a person who 
dictated to several at once ; in both which eases mis- 
takes might arise from reading wrong ; and^ in the 
latter, also, from hearing wrong. 

Ffaif, ib Michael. Int. lect. § 15. 

714. Many letters, both in Hebrew and in Greek, 
are similar in figure, and more were similar according 
to the modes of writing used in some ages, than now ; 
such letters might easily be, and have often been, put 
one for another ; and acquaintance with the several 
successive modes of writing will show, both the occa- 
sions of false readings, thence arising, and the times 
of their introduction. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. § 19, 167. Lowth's Isa. Prel. Diss. p. 57. 

Pfaff. ib. 
D, 3. Psal. cii. 6. DOD—DIDD, 1 MS.— 0133, 3 MSS. 

Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 84, 13. 
3, D. 2 Kings \x. 12. "]nN"i3, but Isa. xxxix 1. IINID. 
1, 1. Gen. iii. 17. l"in;^3, " for thy sake.'- "inni^J, « in thy work." 

70. Vulg. Num. ii. 14. S^«1;r^— but ch. i. 14. vii. 42. x. 20. 

bi^iri. 2 Sam. viii. 3. 1i;^nin— but 1 Chron. xviii. 3. iTi^inn, 

Jon. i. 9. ^'^3;^, " hebrew," — ^3^;, " servant of Jehovah " 70. 

1 MS. Ken. in loc. et Diss. Gen. § 25. Gen, xxii. 13. '^nx, 

« behind"— nn«. 70. 
1, n. Song iv. 9. nnx3— nnj<3. 22 MSS. Isa. Ixvi. 7. nnx — 

nnx. Keri. 32 MSS. Ken. et Lowth in loc. 
n, n. Gen. xiv. 5. Il3n3, " with them." So the Heb. Sam. 70— 

butan3, "in Ham." 7 J^am. MSS. Eng and this is the 

preferable reading. Ken. in loc. et Diss. Gen. § 84, 13. 
n, 1. Isa. vi. 11. nxji*n, "be desolated" — n^JB^n, "be left." 70. 

Vulg. Lowth in loc. 
n, n. Isa. xxiv. 5. JTiin « laws"— H'lin " law." 70. Syr. 

Chald. 



SOURGES OF FALSE READINGS. 217 

n, p. Ruth iv. 20. nnSu^ — v. 21. jinW. 
n, )}. 2 Sam. V. 1. iJjn — 1 Chron. xi. l.mn. 
^\Psal. xxiv. 4. li^aj "his soul'* — *iyD3 "mj soul," Keri, 
which is wrong. lix. 10. non " his mercj" — "IDH " my 
mercy/' Keri. Eng. which is right. 
|, "I- Psal. xxii. 27. y:Dh *' before thee" — v:3S " before him," 
1 MS. 70. connexion. Zech. xiv. 5. p;; " with thee" — ID;; 
" with him," S7 MSS. connexion. 
715. Many false readings have arisen from con- 
founding letters or words similar in sound ; especially, 
by reason of indistinctness either in pronouncing or in 
hearing, when one dictated, and others wrote. 

nS is put for )h 13 times, and )b for ifh twice, according to the 
Masora; perhaps oftener. 

Isa. ix. 3. nS " not multiplied" — )h " multiplied their,^^ Keri. 
12 MSS. Syr. Chald. connexion, and therefore right. — Lev. 
xi. 21. " Which have not (nS) legs" — )h "to which are legs," 
Keri. Sam. -j^ MSS. 70. Vulg. Eng. the sense requires this 
reading. Isa. xxxii. 3. nr^rtyn i^h) " and the eyes — shall not 
be dim." Eng. )h) " and /lim— shall regard." 
Lowth in loc. 

2 Kings viii. 10. Elisha bids Hazael say {vh) "thou shalt not 
recover." So it is in the text, and is right; but the Keri, 
and several MSS. have it )h " to him, thou shalt recover,'* 
which is wrong, and gives an equivocal sense, but is followed 
in the Eng. Vers. 
Ken. Diss. 1. p. 163, and in loc. 

Mar. V. 14. eyn^at, which is right — but syetpe in several MSS. 
and Edit. Mill in loc. Kuster Prsef. Griesbach in loc. 
So also Rev. xi. 1. (lid.) Mat. xi. 16. Irecipoig, right ; but 
erepotg in several MSS. (lid.) Gal. iv. 18. ^tj^^a^^xt right; 

but ^'^>^ov(rh, Vulg. (lid.) Luke ii. 12. evpijcrccre ; but evptjTi- 
reci, in 4 MSS, Aid. (lid.) Jam. iv. 12. Ire^ov, right; proba- 
bly some wrote erutpov ; hence the gloss 7rAsj5-<d», which is in 
the Alex, and several other MSS. Vulg. Syr. Copt, ^thiop. 
(lid.) 1 John iv. 2. yimcTTcsre, " ye know ;'' but ytvao-Kercii, 
28 



218 SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 

"is known," — in several MSS. and Vers, either is suitable, 
(lid.) Heb xi. 37. eTrpia-StiTuv, "sawn asunder," right; but 
(7rpiiaret}<ruv, "burnt," Cyril. Jer (Mill in loc. PfaflT. p 145.) 
£ Cor. xii. 1. h, right; ^ei, several MSS. Ital. Vulg. Syr. 
(Mill, in loc ) 

Mat. XX. 15. H c<^Sx?if^oi ;— EI, 12 MSS. (Mill in loc ) 

Mat xi '2, ^ya; — Sia, 1 MS. Syr. Pers, Goth. Armen Ital per- 
haps right, altered from Luke vii. 19. 
(Mill in loc. and Proleg. 387.) 

1 Cor. ix. 27, vTrofTTtei^ej, " to chastise or keep under;" Alex, 
and most MSS. Vulg. Ethiop. most Fathers and Edit vTro^i- 
eci^ca, " to make blue," all Steph. 6 others Aid. 1 Erasm. 
Colin. CTroTTts^ej, "to emaciate with hunger," 9 MSS. Clem. 
Alex. Nazian. 

Mill. Proleg. 1204. Kuster and Griesb. in loc. 

Ch. XV 49. ^o^etrof^ev, "shall bear," many MSS. Syr. Arab. 
Ethiop Origen.Theodoret; this is the common reading, and 
suits the context; — but ^ope<raf<.sv, Alex. 19 others. 2 Edit, 
most Fathers, wrong. 

Mill. Proleg. IS 19. Kuster and Griesb. in loc. 

1 Cor. xiii. 3. icciv67)(roy.»i, "burnt," right; — but Kccvxvi<!-6it^eti, 
" glory," Alex. Jer. (Mill and Griesb in loc.) 

716. A transcriber sometimes gave a false readings 
by writing a word, while the sound of a preceding 
word was still in his ears, or in his mind. 

Michael. § 15. 

Rom. i. SO. Kurc(,>ia.Xiii, right ; but y^xy^oXay^a^, 2 MSS. after kuko- 
35^e/«5. Mill and Griesb. in loc.) 

717. A transcriber, having read or heard a whole 
clause at once, and retaining the sense, but forgetting 
some of the precise words, wrote a synonymous word 
instead of what he had in his copy ; to this head be- 
long very many various readings. 



SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 2l9 

Whitby Exam. Millii, 1. 3. § 2—9. 

Mat ii 11 'Evptv, "they found;" but ei^ov, "they saw," in 

most iViSS Vers, and Quotat. some Edit, right. 
^ Mill, Kust. and Griesb. in loc. Whitby Exam. 1. 2. 
c. 2. § 1. 

Ch. iii. 8. y.x^'mg — xctpTrov, X. 28. ^oQ^6t]re — ^aQuHe. xii. 32. 
rarei ra xiavi — rat vvv uiavt, xvii. 21. etcTropevsrai — t^i^XBTUi. 
xxiii. 8. Koe.h7i)rv)<i — h^otG-KxXoti. Mar. i. 16. Tre^iTrurm — 
-Trot^w/otv. ii. 4. Trpareyyto-oci — TrpotreveyKoci, viii. 34. oTTis-a 
tX6en — XKoXadeiv. Luke vii. 24. ccyye^^av — fA^cchrm, 

718. A reader, or a transcriber, casting his eye on 
a preceding line or word, and not observing the mis- 
take, would write over again what he had wTitten al- 
ready ; which would especially happen, when in the 
place on which he happened to cast his eye he found 
the same, or similar words or letters, as he had last 
written. 

Exod. XXX. 6. mi^n ^V '^kS?^' nnaon 'lih, " before the mercy seat 
that is over the testimony." This is wanting in 18 MS6. 
Sam. and 70 ; it is repeated from the former clause, and, by 
changing njisn, " veil," into rii£3Dn, "mercy seat,'' is con- 
tradictory to it, and to Heb. ix. 7, 
Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. p. 70. n. 

719. If he cast his eye on a word or a line subse- 
quent to where he was writing, and especially, if he 
there found a word similar to what he had written 
last, or to what he should have written next, he would 
readily write from that subsequent place, omitting all 
that intervened. 

Mat. XXviii. 9. 'a? h eTro^evcvra AaAFFElAAl TOIS MA0H- 
TAIZ AXTOr. Omitted, from this cause, in several M?SS. 
Vulg. Hyr. Copt. Armen* Pers. Aiab. Clirysost. Jer. 



220 SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 

August. Mark xi. 26. omitted, from the same cause, in S 
Ms'b\ Copt. Edit. Aid. and Frob. (Mill in loc. and Prol. 

875.) 

720. A person having written one or more words 
from a wrong place^ and not observing it^ or not 
choosing to erase it, might return to the right line, 
and thus produce an improper insertion of a word, or a 

clause. 

Mat. xxvi. 60. The first cv^ Ivpev, is wanting in one MS. and 
is superfluous and improper. (Kuster. Prsef.) Griesb. in 
loc. 

Mar. iv. 18. Tlie second ovrot sto-iv, wanting in Alex, and 40 
other MSS. Copt, Goth. Arab. Theophjlact. and is super- 
fluous. (Mill. Kuster and Griesb. in loc.) 

John vii. 26. The second etX'n^aq wanting in 11 MSS. Vulg. 
Armen. Arab. Orig. Chrys. Cyril. Epiphan. — the first is 
wanting in 3 MSS. Syr- Copt. Pers. Ethiop. (Mill. Grot, 
and Griesb. in loc. PfafF. p. 166.) 

1 Cor. X. 28. Tav yu^ Kvptev ^ yv, &c. wanting in Alex, and 10 
other MSS. Vulg. Syr. Ethiop. Arab. Copt. Complut. Ed. 
they are superfluous, and were probably inserted from v. 26. 
(Mill, and Griesb. in loc.) 

2 Cor. xii 7. The second ivot f>t.i] vTrepeiipafiut wanting in Alex, 
and 5 other MfcS. Vulg. Ethiop. Iren. Aug. they are super- 
fluous. (Mill. andKuster^ in loc, and Prol. 1205.) 

Isa. xlviii. 11. 'J;?dS redundant; it is wanting in 1 MS. 70. 
Syr. perhaps it has been taken in from v. 9. (Lowth in loc.) 
— "Diy " my name" is added in 1 MS. 70. Eng. and is right. 

721. When a transcriber had made an omission, 
and afterwards observed it, he tlien subjoined what he 
had omitted, and thus produced a transposition. 

Mat. V. 4. is subjoined to v. 5. in Camb. Vulg. Jerom.v Luke 
xxiii. 17. is omitted in Alex, and 1 other; it is subjoined to 
V. 19. in Camb. 



SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 221 

Horn. i. 29. is very different in different copies. 

xSiyciet^ TTopveiet^ 7rovi}^iei, TrXeove^ax, x,oCKioi, Common Edit. 
uStKi(x,, TToviipioi, KtCKtee,^ vrXeove^iu, Alex. Ethiop. 
oiStKiai, KccKtu^ TTopveiet, TrXeovs^ttXy Clermont. 
uStKiocy •xoviiptce,^ TTo^vsie^, TrXeove^foe, x,ctK.tu. Vulg. 
it^tKiee, ^o^vetoiy TrcvTjptacy KeiKtoi^ TrXeove^tu, Syr. 

Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. 

722. From these occasions of false readings^ several 
principles may be deduced; for deciding concerning 
various readings. 

Michael. § 17. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 13. 

723. If a reading which is easily accounted for 
from an usual blunder bf a transcriber, be found only 
in a few manuscripts, it is, in all probability, a false 
reading. 

724. If a reading which yields no sense, or suits not 
the connexion, or disagrees with other texts, can be 
naturally accounted for by an ordinary mistake of tran- 
scribers, it is a false reading. 

2 Sam. xxi. 19. "Elhanan, the son of laare-Oregim,^' ("i;;' 
O'^'in) this is wrong ; in 1 Chron. xx. 5. it is ^)}^" ; but the 
Keri is 1V% which is probably right ; whence "y)^' and n;;' — 
O'jnx " weavers ;" this word is taken from the end of the 
verse. — « A Bethlehemite ('•DnSn n^n) slew Goliah." This 
is not true ; see 1 Sam. xvii. 50. But in 1 Chron. xx. 5. it 
is, " slew Lahmi, the brother of Goliah," 'DhS — nK ^HN which 
is right, and accounts for the mistakes in Samuel j riK being 
changed into n*:: — n prefixed for forming a regular local 
name, and 'HX changed into PN. 
Ken. Diss. 1. p. 78. 



222 SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 

725. Among different readings, that is, probably, 
the genuine one, from which the others may have ea- 
sily arisen, but which could not so naturally arise from 
them. 

726. Hence, the most unusual reading is, generally, 
the true ; for a transcriber would not so readily write 
it by mistake, as one to which he was more accustom- 
ed. 

Michael. § 17. 

2 Sam. xxiii. 36. " Igal the son of Nathan," but t Chron xi. 
38. "Joel the brother of Nathan," which is probably right. 
bj^r is in all the ancient versions, and might as readily pro- 
duce '?K-i% as be produced by it. "Brother" is a relation 
less frequently expressed than "son," and therefore less J 
likely to be put by mistake ; and there were two Joels at this 
time, but neither the son of Nathan. 
Ken. Diss. 1. p. 213. 

727. Hence, too, the fuller reading generally is the 
genuine, whenever there is no particular reason to sus- 
pect an interpolation ; for a letter, a word, or a sen- 
tence, may be more easily omitted than added, when 
there is nothing to suggest the addition. 

1 Chron. xi. 32. Sx^3X "Abiel;" but 2 Sam. xxiii. 31. 

|uS;?*3K " Abialbon," which is right ; |U might be easily 

omitted or defaced. 
V. 36. n^nx " Ahijah," but 2 Sam. xxii. 34. Ssjn^nx p Up'hii ' 

" Eliam, the son of Achithophel." This last is the right 

reading ; the two first words might be easily omitted from a 

similar beginning, n changed into n, and hs defaced. 
Ken. Diss. 1. p. 194, 207. 
Mat. ii. I. ev ^^f^epuii 'Bpahv rov ilocTiXsai; is wanting in several 

MSS. ; but genuine. (Mill, and Griesb. in loc.) 2 Pet. iii. 

3. sf^TrettKTxi ; but ev sy.Trect'/iAov'yi ef^TruiKTett in Alcx. and 8 



SOURCES OP FALSE READINGS. 223 

other MSS. Vulg. Syr. Arab. Ethiop. Aug. Jer. and is 
right. (Mill in loc. and Prol. 925. Estiiis and Griesb. in 
loc.) 

728. The second source of false readings is design; 
to which are to be ascribed such as are made know- 
ingly and wilfully, and such as, having been made 
accidentally, are wilfully suffered to remain, after 
being perceived. 

729. Mistakes accidentally made, have often been * 
designedly permitted to remain uncorrected, that the 
beauty or price of the manuscript might not be lessen- 
ed by blotting. 

Lowth's Isa. Prel. Diss. p. 58. 

730. Many false readings are owing to assimilation ; 
when a transcriber had once found or written a word 
wrong, he purposely altered that, or related words, 
in conformity to the mistake. 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. 374, 415, &c. Diss. Gen. § 18, 84. 

"i;;: " a boy," is 21 times, in the Pentateuch, put for TTij;: " a 
girl ;" which last is found but once, Deut, xxii. 19. and 
there, too, '^];i is found in 12 MSS. But the Masora points 
as m;fJ, and directs it to be read so. It seems impossible 
that this could have happened so often, by chance ; it must 
have been by assimilation. 

1 Kings viii 30 « hear to (H«) heaven ;" but 2 Chron. vi. 21. 
"from,"' (p,) which is right. In v. 3s2, 34, 36, 39, 43, 45, 49, 
jD is wanting, by assimilation ; but it is necessary. 

Ezek. xl, •• the sign of the plural before the suffixed 1, is omit- 
ted in 34 words, by assimilation; the Keri adds them in 
all M^S. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. p. 117. et in loc. 



224 SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 

731. Critical transcribers sometimes transferred 
what they thought a clearer or fuller expression^ or 
added a circumstance, to one place, from a parallel 
passage ; a liberty often taken, especially in the Gos- 
pels ; and, therefore, of two readings, (particularly in 
the Gospels,) one of v/hich is exactly conformable to 
a correspondent passage, and the other not, but yet 
consistent with it, the latter is preferable. 

Mat. xii. 8. kcci is wanting in above 30 MSS. Syr. Pers. Arab. 
Ethiop. Erasm. 1 Ed. Aid, it has been taken from Mark, or 
Luke, as emphatical. (Mill. Kust. Griesbach. in ioc) V. 
35. TJJ5 KocpS'txi is wanting in all Stephens's MSS. except one, 
and near 40 others ; in Vulg. Syr. Copt. Pers. Arab, and 
some quotations ; it has been taken from Luke vi. 45. where 
it is found in most MS8. (lid. in Ioc.) Ch. xx. 22, 23, kcci 
TO (iaTTTiTf^oc. tyoi (i»7rTi^6f^xi, (i»7rTiF&}]veit • — liet7rTi(r6i}0-eo'6£, 
is wanting in several MSS. Vulg. Ethiop. Copt and most 
quotations ; it has been taken from Mark x. 38, 59. (Mill, 
and Griesb. in Ioc.) 

Mat. xxvii. 35. Im TrX^jpaSt}, tc. r, A. to the end of the verse, is 
wanting in all Stephens's, Alex, and 56 others. Syr. Copt. 
Ethiop. Arab, most copies of Vulg. and in many quotations ; 
it has been taken from John xix. 24. (Mill. Kust. Griesb. 
in Ioc.) Mat. ii. 17. e<« fteravo/<ey, wanting in Alex, and 9 
others. Vulg. Syr. Copt. Goth. Pers. Ethiop. Armen. and 
in Mat. ix. 13.; it is wanting in 6 MS^. and the same ver- 
sions ; it has been taken from Luke v. 32. where it is found 
in all MSS. and versions. (lid.) Luke iv. 8, w5r«eyf cTciTa (jlov 
'Zxrccvoc, — yccp, wanting in several MSS, all versions and quo- 
tations ; it has been taken either from Mat. iv. 10. or rather, 
because wanting there in most MSS. and in Vulg. Syr. from 
Mat. xvi. 23. (Grot. Mill. Kust. Griesb. in Ioc.) John. vi. 
11. Td/5 fA,oc6iiruii;, ol ^e fi,oi6i^rc6t, wanting in Alex, and 4 other 
MSS. Vulg. Syr. Goth. Copt. Pers. Arab. Ethiop, it has been 
taken from the other Gospels. (lid. et Erasm. Zeger, in Ioc.) 



SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 225 

. 732. Critics sometimes corrected the New Testa- 
ment from the Greek version of the Old ; and^ there- 
fore, when one reading of a quotation agrees exactly 
with that version, and another not so exactly, the 
former, if not well supported, is suspicious, and the 
latter preferable. 

Michael. § 18. 

Liuke iv 8. locc-xTdxi tov$ o-vvreTpif^cfAevovq r^» KotpStccv, is wanting 

in several MSS. and versions ; it has probably been taken 

from the 70. (Mill, et Griesb.) 

733. Critics sometimes altered the text of the New 
Testament, in conformity to the Vulgate version ; and 
readings plainly arising from this cause^ deserve no 
regard. 

Mackniglit on Epistles, Gen. Pref. Sect. 1. 

734. Critics sometimes introduced alterations, or 
additions, into a passage, from what goes before or 
after. 

Mat. V. IS. 1CC61 rav Tirpotp'^rm is added in some MSS. and in 
Armen. et Irenge. — from v. 17. (Mill, et Griesb. in loc.) Ch. 
vi. 18. CK <pa.^zpct) is wanting in above 50 MSS, and all versions 
except the Ethiop — it has been taken from v, 4, 6. where, 
too, it is wanting in many copies, and therefore probably a 
gloss. (Kust. et lid. in loc.) Ch. xxv. 13. a Vi o t)<«$ rev 
uyGpa'Teov e^x^reti, is wanting in Alex, and 12 others; in Vulg. 
Syr- Copt. Pers. Arab. Ethiop- and quotations ; it has been 
taken from the preceding chapter. (lid. in loc.) Mark vi. 
12. after s^e'TrXiio-crovTo is added e^n rn h^oix^ avTov in some 
MSS. and Vulg.— from ch. i. 22. (lid. in loc.) 

735. Critics sometimes altered their copies^ with 
a view to correct some word in them which they un- 
derstood not; or reckoned faulty ; and therefore^ when 

29 



226 SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 

of two readings one is perfectly clear, and the other 
difficult, Or obscure, but such as may be explained by 
the help of antiquity, or perfect knowledge of the lan- 
guage, the former is suspicious, and the latter is pro- 
bably genuine. 

Michael. § 15. Marsh's Michael, ch. 6. sect. 11. 

Luke xvi. 9. /tcaftA^vec r^s xSiKioiq, changed into etSiKH f4,ecfAmu. 
in the Camb. MS. — fKA/5rjjre. or £»Ae<7rjjT5 ; this is the right 
reading ; it has indeed an unusual sense, but is found in the 
70.— changed into tfcXetTnj, or e«>i/7r»), in the Alex. Camb. 
Syr. Pers. Ethiop. (Mill, et Griesb. in loc.) Acts xxi. 3. 
«v«e4)«v£yTe$, this is the common reading, and best supported ; 
but changed into xvx^ecveivre'; in some copies ; this, however, 
is irregular, and therefore corrected into etm<ppetvrsi. (Mill, 
in loc. et Prol. 1262.) 

736. Critical transcribers sometimes omitted words 
which they reckoned superfluous. 

Mark vii. 37. rovq up^ahovg is omitted in 1 MS. Ch x. 19. /m-j? 
etTrocrTtipuiriii, omitted in 6 MSS. and in Arm. it seems included 
in xAe^/zjjs, and is not in the other gospels. (Mill, et Griesb. 
in loc.) 

737. Critics, in transcribing, sometimes added 
words for illustrating what they thought defective or 
improper. 

Luke i. 64. SitjpSpah, " was loosed," is added in Camb. and 
Compl. ; it seemed improper to say that the " tongue" was 
" opened." (Grot. Mill. Kust. Griesb. in loc) 

738. It was common to write alterations, or addi- 
tions, for the sake of illustration, as glosses on the mar- 
gin, whence transcribers, afterwards, sometimes took 
them into the text ; and, for this reason, the fuller 
reading, whenever it could serve for illustration, or 



SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 227 

correction, is generally suspicious, and to be re- 
jected. 

Wetstein, prol. c. 16. can. 9. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 18, 3. 

Mat. vi. 33. There is added in some copies cctrure rx ftey<eA«e, 
x»t Tcc f<.iKpec uf^tv TrptTTeCtja-eTotr -xcct uiretre Tec e^apeivtct, K»t tec 
tviyetcc CfAtv Trpoa-reevcrercci^ and in Orig. contra Cels 1. 7. et 
de Orat. Clem. Alex. Strom. 1. but it is a gloss. (Mill, in 
loc et Prol. 695. Whitby, Exam. 1. 2. s. 1. § 3. Griesb. in 
loc.) 

Mark. i. 16. uS'sXCov avm — m S//M.fl>vo$ is added in all Stephens's, 
in 32 others, and R. Steph. Edit. — xSeX^pov 'ZtfA.moi in 1 MS. 
ra ^if^moi in 1 MS. — uvm YiifJLaui in 1 MS. — it is a gloss for 
removing the ambiguity. (Mill. Kust. et Griesb in loc.) 

Luke vii 16. Xstcv ecvm. — £/$ eiyxdov is added in 11 MSS. Arab. 
Arm. — it is a gloss. (Mill, et Griesb. in loc ) 

1 Cor. V. 6. and Gal. v. 9 ^v/^ot is the reading in almost all 
copies ; yet perhaps it is a gloss. AoXot " corrupteth,'' is 
found in Clerm. gr. et lat. Germ. lat. Vulg. Iren. and other 
quotations. In Gal. So^ot ^vf^ot are both found in Clerm. gr. 
The former word is used by the apostle in 2 Cor. iv 2. but 
in the above places vi^as, perhaps, not understood, or thought 
improper. 

739. Persons have sometimes made alterations in 
the copies of Scripture, with a wilful intention of 
corrupting them, in order to answer some particular 
purpose. 

Marsh's Michael, ch. 6. § 12. 

740. It has been a question, Whether the Jews 
have, in any instance, wilfully corrupted the Old Tes- 
tament ? It is denied, because of their veneration for 
the Scriptures, their not being accused of it by Christ, 
the impossibility of their doing it afterwards without 
detection, and their having left so many predictions 



228 SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 

favourable to Christianity. But, it is answered, that 
their veneration for the Scriptures gives no absolute 
security ; that there are good reasons for Christ's not 
accusing them, though guilty ; that they might hope 
to avoid detection by the ignorance of Hebrew among 
the first Christians ; that the earliest who understood 
it do charge them with wilful corruptions ; that their 
not going all lengths, is no proof that they have at- 
tempted none; that evidence of a single instance, would 
outv/eigh all general arguments ; and that, though 
the charge against them has sometimes been carried 
too far, yet, there is sufficient evidence that, for the 
honour of their own nation, or from hatred to Chris- 
tianity, they have wilfully corrupted some texts, and, 
in others, given the preference to false readings, which 
had at first arisen from other causes. 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. Q75. Diss. 2. p. 349. Diss. Gen. § 21, 24, 66, 
67, 68, 76, 84. 

Judg. xviii. 30. " the son of (nK^JD) Manasseh." Heb. 70. but 
wilfully corrupted from ni^D, for the honour of Moses. This 
is confessed by R. Solomon Jarchi, and confirmed by the 
several irregular ways of writing the J, and by the agreement 
in time. Vulg. MSS. of 70. (Ken. Diss. 2. p. 5 1. Diss. Gen. 
§ 21. cod. 490, 614. et in loc.) 

Deut. xxvii. 26. " that confirmeth not the words ;" but it is 
quoted. Gal. iii. 10. " all the words," which is necessary for 
the argument, and Sd is found in 4 Heb. MSS. 6 Chald. 
MSS. Samar. and its version, and 70. It has been omitted, 
that the Jews might not seem to be under the curse, or in 
opposition to Paul. (Ken. in loc. et Diss. 2. p. 47. Diss. Gen. 
§ 81, 84, 85.) 

Josh. XV. 59. Eleven cities are here mentioned in 70, one of 
which is E<pfix9et, uvTT} eo-Ti But6>inf,t. They were probably 
at first omitted in the Hebrew, by means of the last word 



SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS. 229 

being also before this clause ; but the omission has been con- 
tinued, because Bethlehem (the birth-place of the Messiah, 
Mic. V. 2.) is no where else called Ephrathah. (Ken. Diss. 
2. p. 57. Diss. Gen. § 84. 
Isa. Hi. 14. y V, " at thee." This reading confounds the pre- 
diction, by the change of person ; but yhv is found in 2 
MSS. Syr. Chald. Vulg. MSS. Aqu. it is so translated in the 
Eng. of Coverdale, and in Edit. 1537, 1540, 1566, and is 
right. It might have been altered by chance, but probably 
by design, as the alteration is also made in the 70. (Ken. 
Diss. Gen. § 79. p. 35. n. 45. n. Lowth in loc. Ch. Ixiv. 4. 
the present Hebrew is unintelligible ; it has been corrupted, 
in opposition to Paul's quotation, 1 Cor. ii. 9. (Ken. Diss. 
Gen. § 84, 6, 7. Lowth in loc.) 

741. Some false readings, though not so many as 
have been imputed to them by the Fathers, and by 
others on their authority, were introduced, or attempt- 
ed, by the ancient heretics, purposely in favour of their 
errors ; but such were easily detected, and soon re- 
jected. 

Michael. §15. Pfaft'c. 11§2. Mill. Prol, passim. 

742. The prevailing party in the church, who have 
always called themselves the orthodox, had it much 
more in their power to introduce and transmit false 
readings ; and they have sometimes introduced them, 
and oftener given them the preference after their being 
accidentally made, on purpose to favour some receiv- 
ed opinion, or to preclude an objection against it. 

Michael. PfafF. ib. 

Mat. i. 18. Trpiv i} irvveXSeiv uvrag, and V. 25. uvrm Tov TrparoTOKov, 
are omitted in some MSS purposely, but unnecessarily, in 
favour of the perpetual virginity. (Mill, et Griesb. in loc.) 

Mar. viii. 31. Instead of f^sret rpei? nf^'Spoti, 4. MSrf. have e* rjj 
rpirvi riH-epc^y — for the fact. (Erasm. Mill, et Griesb. in loc.) 



230 KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 

Ch. xiii 32. cvSe c w/a?— omitted in some copies, and rejected 

by some Fathers, as favouring the Arians. (Mill, in loc. et 

Prol. 826. Griesb. in loc ) 
Luke i. 35. ye^MUfJueuv.—ElL SOY is added in 3 MSS Vulg. 

Syr. Pers. Arab, several quotations, and Eng. — against the 

Eutychians. (lid. in loc. et ib.) 

1 John iv. 3. After o f^t} of^ohnyet rov ItjTay Xpicroi ev trecpKi cAjjAy- 
Soretj is added, o Aye/ (or it.ct.ra.Xvei) r«v lajcri^v, in 1 MS. Vulg. 

and almost all quotations. It was perhaps, at first, a gloss, 
and afterwards taken into the text, in opposition to Cerinthus 
and Ebioii. 

Mill, in loc. et Prol. 286, 501, 615, 846, 927, 928, 1320. 

743. Mistaken zeal is forward to impute false read- 
ings to design in those whom it opposes ; but we 
ought not to ascribe them to this principle rashly, 
where they might have naturally arisen from chance, 
or where there is no positive presumption or evidence 
of design. 

Mill. Prol. passim. 



SECT. III. 



Of the Kinds of False Readings. 

744. False readings are of four kinds, — Omissions, 
Additions, — Transpositions, — and Alterations ; and 
each of them may be either of letters, of words, or of 
clauses. 

745. It will be useful to take notice of some of the 
most remarkable ofeachkindj especially such as are 



KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 231 

found either in several MSS., in received versions, 
or in printed editions ; pointing out how they have 
arisen, and how they are corrected. 

746. I. Omissions easily happen through careless- 
ness, and sometimes have been made by design ; but 
always alter, pervert, or destroy the sense, which will 
be restored by supplying them. 

747. 1. The omission of a single letter may happen 
very readily, and from many different causes, and has 
happened very frequently ; but is often of great im- 
portance. 

Num. xxii. 5. "The land of the children (ID;^) of his people;" 
this is unmeaning. But pD;; " Amnion," is found in 12 
MSS. Sam. Syr. Vulg. and is right. (Ken. in loc. et Diss. 
Gen. p. 77. note.) 

Ezek. xxxiii. 21. 'r\iy3 "in the twelfth year;" but *nu'j;3 
" eleventh," is found in 8 MSS. and in Syr. which is evi- 
dently right. See 2 Kings xxv. 8. Ken. in loc. et ib. § 105, 
179. p. 83. n.) 

748. Sometimes by accident, and sometimes de- 
signedly, when the introduction of the vowel points 
was thought to render them unnecessary, the vowel 
letters, in particular, have been improperly omitted, 
especially 1 and % on account of their smallness ; and 
the omission has produced improper, and even absurd 
readings. 

Job.i. 16, 17. niy ; but v. 18. nr- (Ken. in loc. et Diss. Gen. 

§167. 
Ch. ii. 11. XX. 1. 'ifllV ; but xi. 1. xlii. 9. '^Dy. (lid. ib.) 
Josh. xvii. ll.n'mj^i, "and her towns," five times right; but 

n^njil once. So Judg, i. 27. four times right, once wrong. 

Judg. ii. 7. VlS'in'— j;iiyin\ (lid. ib.) 



232 KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 

749. The improper omission of *) vitiates the lan- 
guage, or* changes the sense, by altering the persons 
of pronouns/ and the numbers of verbs/ by taking 
away the copulative/ and when it is conversive, turn- 
ing the future into the past/ by suppressing the pos- 
sessive pronoun.^ 

1 Zech. xii. 10. " They shall look (^Sn) upon me." Heb. 70. 
Vulg. but this is wrong; it occasions a confusion of persons. 
The true reading is vhi< " upon /lim,'* which is found in 40 
M8Sc John xix. 37. 

Ken. in Joe. Diss. 2. p. 536. Diss. Gen. § 43, 6"), 95, 150. 

2 Gen. V. 23,31. ix. 29. 'H* "all his days was,''^ which is 
wrong ; but VH' is found in many MSS. and in Sam. So 
Num. ix. 6. (Ken. Diss. Gen. § 167.) 

Isa. Kv. 1. 1^N*iy "them that asked;" but ':)W\i/, "asked for 
me" in 2 MSS. and is better. ^Jt>'p3, " him that sought 
me;" but ^:r^p3, " them," in above 100 MSS. oldest Edit, 
and all Versions. Rom. x. 20. 

Lowth in loc. Ken. ib. and Diss. Gen. p. 87. n. 

3 Isa. i 3. " Israel."-— Sxiiy^l, " but Israel," in 70. Syr. Vulg. 
Aq. Theod. Eng, (Lowth in loc.) 'D^; — 'D^) " and my people," 
in 16 MSS. 70. Syr. Vulg. (Lowth, ib.) Isa. xvii. 14. xxvii.9. 
XXX. 14.xli. 5, 7. xlii 1, 7. xlvi. 11. xlix. 9. 1. 5. Iv. 13. (lid.) 

* Jer. xxxi. 33. TinJ, " I have put." This is applied by the 
Jews to their own law, in opposition to Christianity ; but the 
connexion shows it to be wrong. ^nnJI, " and I will put," 
is found in 19 MSS. Chald. and other ancient versions, ex- 
cept 70, in which it is ^i^a^ ^atra. This text is quoted, Heb. 
X. 16. as a prediction, where it is <J/^«5 ; but Saina is found in 
one MS. Syr. Arab. Ethiop. Copt.; and the connexion shows 
it to be right. 
Ken. in loc. Diss. gen. § 66. and n. p. 83. n. Mill in 
loc. 

« Isa. iii. 13. r^V—^^V, "his people." 70. the sense requires 
this reading. (Lowth in loc.) 



KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 233 

, 750. The improper omission of % which has been 
very frequent, perverts the syntax or the sense, by 
turning plural into singular nouns,^ by changing the 
persons of verbs,^ by altering the future into the past/ 
by suppressing the aflixt pronoun.* 

Nuai xii. 3. "Now the man Moses was very meeky MV ', but 
this has no connexion with the context, and he everywhere 
represents himself as a man of great warmth, 16 MSS. 
read r^V* " responsor." Now the man Moses gave forth 
more answers (from God,) or, was highly favoured with an- 
swers, &c. Ken. Remarks. 

^ Gen. xli. 8. inSn, "his dr^am ;^^ but this does not agree 
with Cum^i, " them," in this verse, and he had dreamed 
twice, V. 5. The ISam. has VD^n, " dreams.^^ (Ken. Diss. 
Gen. § 167.) 

Isa. lii. 5. 1^1^/3, "he that rules over them,'^^ lS'Vn% (plur.) 
" make them to howl ;'' this is wrong. vSu'D, " they who 
rule,^^ Keri. above 12UM8S )hbn\ "make their boast of it," 
5 MSS. Chald. (Ken. and Lowth in loc.) 

Ch. liii. 4. ir^n, " our infirmity ;" but U^'Sn, " our infirmities," 
in 7 MiSS. and 3 Edit. (lid.) 

2 Job xlii. 2. r\VTy " thou knowest ;" but ^nVT, " I know," 
Keri. about 80 MSS. all Vers. Eng and is right (Ken. in 
loc.) Ezek. xvi. 59. r\'UV\ "thou wilt deal with thee,'* 
absurd, 'n^'^y), " I will," &c. Keri. 25 MSS. Vers. Eng. 
lid.) 

3 Psal. xxii. 29. iSd«, "have eaten."— iSdj<% "shall eat," I 
Edit, perhaps right. Eng. (Ken. Diss. Gen. cod. 255.) 

* Isa iii 14. □"iJn — 'DIDH, "my vineyard." 70. Chald. Jerom. 
Ch. xii. 2. n-iDT— -in^DT, " my song." 1 M . 70. Vulg. Syr. 
Eng. (Lowth in loc.) 

751. 2. Omissions of entire words are very fre- 
quent ; and always introduce obscurity, absurdity, or 
a diiference in sense. 
30 



234 KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 

There are 50 whole words omitted in Isaiah. Lowth, Prel. 
Diss. p. 65 ) 

Gen. XXV. 8. r:3tJ?l, "and full"~of what? a'D% "of days," 
is added in 3 MSS. Sara. 70. Syr. Vule;. Arab. This was 
a customary phrase, ch. xxxv. 29. 1 Chron. xxiii. 1. xxix. 
28. Job. xlii. 17. Eng. "ot years." (Ken. Diss. Gen. § 25, 
108,136,176, 179.) 

Josh. viii. 27. S&?nty'' ; but hi^'illf" ^J3 in 94 MSS. and all Vers. 
(Ken. Diss. Gen. p. 87, n.) Ch. xxii. 34. "called the altar — 
for it shall be a witness ;" this is defective ; but IV » *' wit- 
ness," is found in several MSS. Chald. MSS. Syr. Arab. Vulg. 
Eng. the sense requires it. (Ken. in loc. Diss. 1. p. 444. 
Diss. 2. p. 175, 178. Diss. Gen. § 25, 55, 108.) 

judg, XV. 6. n^35<, "her father;" but n*3« n^:i, " the house of 
her father," in 20 MSS. 70. Syr. Arab. (Ken. in loc. et 
Diss. Gen. p. 87. n.) 

1 Sam xvi. 23, CH'TlSx nn; but r\yi a'nSx nn, « an eriZ 
spirit from the Lord," in 4 MSS. Chald. all Vers, the con- 
nexion requires this addition. Ken. in loc. et ib. 

2 Sam. vi. 6. "Uzzah put forth — to the ark;" this is defec- 
tive : but n^TiN*, " his hand," in all Vers, and 1 Chron. 
xiii. 9. 

Ver- 7. Siyn hy, but there is no such noun, and the suffix is 
wanting. )T nSty'liJ^x 4;? " because he put forth his hand," 
Syr. Arab. 1 Chron. xiii. 10. two words omitted, one letter 
changed, two transposed. 

Ch. xiii. 37. " And—mourned." V/ho 1—1)1 yDtJ^'l, " and David 
heardit, and mourned." in 1 MS. all Vers. Eng. (Ken. Diss. 
Gen. p. 80. n.) 

1 Chron. vi. 28. (Heb. v. 13.) "the first born" '^W) ; this is not 
true, but Joel, 1 i^am. viii 2. bisV is omitted. "Joel, and 
the second Abiah." (Ken. Diss. Gen. § 113.) 

Psal. ix. 18. " The expectation of the poor shall — perish." vh, 
" not," in 1 MS Chald. all Vers. Eng. evidently right. 
Ken. in loc. et Diss. Gen. cod. 153. 

Job xxviii. 17. "the exchange of it — jewels." N*S, "not," in 1 
MS. Sym. Eng. right. lid. ib. 



KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 235 

Psal. Ixv. 1. "vow paid," — in Jerusalem, is added in Vulg 
Ethiop. Arab. 70. Comp. Aid. and several MSS. right ; the 
structure requires it. 
Ken. Diss. Gen. § 89. 

752. 3. There have sometimes happened omis- 
sions of several words together, or of whole clauses, 
which, in a variety of ways, mutilate or vitiate the 
sense. 

Gen. XXXV. 22. '" Israel heard it— Now the sons," &c. piska. 
But the 70. adds, " and it appeared evil in his eyes." Num. 
xii. 16. The Sam. adds the speech referred to, and repeated 
Deut. i. 20 — 23 ; this is right and necessary. 
Ken. in loc. et Diss. Gen. § 24. 

1 Sam. X. 21. After "Matri was taken," n^^DH nnst^D n^Vl 
CD'*i:i:i'7, " And when he had caused the family of Matri to 
come near man by man," is added in 1 MS. and 70. right ; 
the sense requires it. (lid. ib. cod. 451.) 

2 Kings xxiii. 1 6. "the man of God proclaimed [when Jero- 
boam stood by the altar at the feast ; and he turned and lift- 
ed up his eyes to the sepulchre of the man of God] who pro- 
claimed these words," &c. 70. Syr. MSS. the sense requires 
it, V. 17. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. § 89. 
Prov. xi. 16. "A gracious woman retaineth honour; [but she 
that hateth righteousness is a throne of disgrace. The sloth- 
ful come to want wealth ;] but strong men retain riches.'' 
70. Syr. Arab. 

Ken. ib. § 165. et Diss. 1. p. 508, 
Luke xi. 2. revt)6i}T&> to B-sMf^ot' o-a* ^i ev ovpetvM, kui sTn rjj$ 7??$, 
is wanting in some MSS. Vulg. Armen. Origen. Augustin. 
Ver. 4. <56AA« pvo-oit rf^cti oiTTo ra Trov/.pa, is wanting in some 
MSS. Vulg. Armen. Copt. August. Origen. 
Mill, and Griesb. in loc. 



236 KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 

753. II. Additions and interpolations have often 
been made in transcribing the Scriptures, and per- 
plex the sense^ which will be cleared by removing 
them. 

754. 1. The interpolation, or addition^ of letters, 
has been common among transcribers ; but generally 
destroys or alters the sense. 

2 Chron. iv. 19. nunStyn, " the tables ;'* but there was only 
one, jnSi^Ti, see 1 Kings vii. 48. rby turned into on^*?;?, by 
assimilation. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. § 167. 

1 Tbess ii. 7» jj^t^o/, "gentle," which the sense shows to be right; 
—but vTiTTiot, "infants," in 10 MSS Vulg Ethiop. and quota- 
tions. 

Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc, et Prol 488. 

755. In Hebrew, the vowel letters, especially 1 and 
% have often been improperly added ; and the lan- 
guage disfigured, or difiiculty occasioned by the ad- 
dition. 

2 Sam. xii. 1. "the one rich, and the other \i}\^^ head ?^' but it 
is an " poor," in 22 MSS. v. 4. " took" lyxnn "the head^s 
lamb;" but U^r\ "the poor manV' in 15 MSS. 

Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. 167. 
fsa. i. 4. Q^n'niyD, " corrupters ;" but HD^nntyn, " corrupted," 

in 5 MSS. So Prov. xxv. 26. This last is preferable. 
niJ, " separated," from niJ ; but niTJ, in 32 MSS. and 2 Edit, 
from 11T, " alienate," which is better. 
Ken. and Lowth in loc. 
Ver. 7. The last a'-iT, " stranger," is tautologous ; perhaps 
□"^T, " inundation." 

Lowth in loc. ^ 

Isa. vi. 5. M'DIJ, " I am undone;"— but ^nnnJ, «I am struck 
dumb," in 28 MSS. 3 Edit. Vulg. Syr. Sym. 



KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 237 

Lowth in loc. 
Isa. X. 13. r2i<Jy "as valiant;'* — but T3D, "strongly seated." 
Keri. 12. AibS. 
Lowth in loc. 

756. The arbitrary and improper insertion of 1 
changes the personal pronouns, turns singulars into 
plurals, and gives superfluous conjunctions. 

Josh. vi. 7. I'iDN'i, "dixerunt;" but the noininative is " Josh- 
uah." The Keri is IDNI, and this is found in 34 M^sS. Ken. 
in loc. et Diss. 1. p. 458. Isa i. 6. Ixiii. 7. 
Lowth in loc. 
1 Kings vii. 36. n^niJDDl S;?1, " and on and the borders." but ) 
is wanting, Keri and 21 MSS. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 167. Isa. 
i. 23. xix. IS. 
Lowth in loc. 

757. The interpolation of ^ has, in very many in- 
stances, turned singular nouns into plurals, the second 
persons of verbs into the first, the past into the fu- 
ture, and gives a suffix pronoun where there should be 
none ; and, in all these cases, introduces great impro- 
priety or perversion of the sense. 

Isa. xiv. 11. yoDDI ;— but IDDDl, "covering," in 28 MSS. 7 
Edit. 70 Vulg. 

Lowth and Ken. in loc. 

Ruth iii. 3. "anoint thee, and I will put on" 'nntyi (but ^ is 
w&mmg, " thou shalty^^ in Keri. and 239 MSS. and Edit.) 
" thj raiment upon thee, and Jie-i^^getme down," 'mri 
(but * wanting, " thou shalt get thee down," in Keri. and 
111 MSS. and Edit.) "to the floor, but make not thyself 
known." 

Ken. in loc. and Diss. 1. p. 447. 

Isa. xxxvi. 5. 'nnD«, " I say," wrong ; — but r\*inK, " thou 
sayest," in 16 MSS. Sjr. 2 Kings xviii. 20* The sense re- 
quires this. 



238 KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 

Lowth in loc. Ken. ib. and Diss. Gen. p. 83. n. 
Psal. ex. 4, "Tiirn b;r, "after my order Melchizedek ;" this is 
not sense ; — but m^l, " the order of," &ic. in 2 MSS, Vers. 
Heb. vii. 17. 21. 

Ken. in loc. 

758. 2. There have been interpolations of words, 
from many causes, and, particularly, from taking mar- 
ginal glosses into the text ; which disturb or destroy 
the sense. 

Isa. ii. 20. iS, " for himself," is wanting in 1 MS. and 70. ; it 
is superfluous. 
Lowth in loc. 
Isa. X. 23. "In the midst of all (So) the land," wanting in 75 
MSS. and Edit. Chald. Rom. ix. 28. 

Lowth in loc. Ken. ib. and Diss. Gen. p. 87. n. 
Ezek. V. 7. " Neither (J<S) have done," &c. wanting in 26 MSS. 
and Edit. 
Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 104, 179. 
Isa. liii. 11. pn2f, "my righteous servant," wanting in 3 MSS. 

Lowth in loc. 
Mat. XV. 8. Tflu crrofjLetTt eivrm y.aty wanting in some ancient 
MSS. Vulg. Sjr. Armen. Copt. Pers. Ethiop. perhaps it has 
been added from Isa. xxix. 13. 

Erasm. and Griesb. in loc. Mill. ib. and Prol. 389. 

759. 3. Several words, or whole clauses, have 
been interpolated, to the great disturbance of the 
sense. 

Gen. xxxvi. 31 — 43. is found in all copies, yet not written bj 
Moses ; it has been added from 1 Chron. i. 43 — 54. 
Ken. Diss. Gen. § 18, 3. 
Deut. ii. 9—12. not by Moses. lid. ib. § 167. 
2 Kings vii. 13. iK^s« S«liy' pDHH hDD DJn n3 nxi^J, " are left 



KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 239 

in it, behold they are as all the multitude of Israel, which ;" 
this clause is repeated twice, but wanting in 36 MSS. 70. 
Syr and Chald. MSS. 

Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 89, 179. 
Ch. viii. 16. " In the fifth year of Joram — and of Jehoshaphat 
king of Judahy^^ min^ "jSn D3i;nnn ; but this is not true ; 
the Eng. mistranslates; — but the clause is wanting in 2 
MSS. 70 Compl. Aid Vulg. MSS. and all the oldest Edit. 
Syr. MSS oldest Edit, of Eng. it has been taken from the 
line below. 

Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 19, 109, p. 49, n. 
2 Chron. xxxvi. 22, 23. are improper, for there is an interval 
of 70 years ; the book breaks off abruptly, yet it has long 
been the last in the Bible. These verses have been added 
from Ezra i. 1, 2. which is still found immediately following 
this book, in one Heb. MS. 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. 491. Diss. Gen. cod. 431. 
Isa. XXX. 26. " as the light of seven days," is wanting in most 
copies of 70. 

Lowth in loc. 
Jer. lii. has been added ; for ch. li. 64. ends Jeremiah's words. 
It is taken from 2 Kings xxiv. 18, &c. but with several 
errors Ver. 28, 29, 30. are interpolated ; they contradict 
2 Kings xxiv. 16. Ver. 34. "until the day of his death, all 
the days of his life," are superfluous ; and they are wanting 
in one ancient MS. and 2 Kings xxv. 30. 

Ken. in loc. et Diss. 1. p. 481. 
Mat. X. 8. vsjcpm sysipsre, wanting in 56 MSS. Armen. Pers. 
quotations; probably added, for the apostles raised none 
during Christ's life. 

Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. 
Ch. xxiii. 13. omitted in Cam. Arab. MSS. very ancient Lat. 
MSS. Sax. Grig. Jerom. Euseb. perhaps added from Mark 
or Luke ; it is transposed with v. 14. in near 30 MSS. sev- 
eral Edit. Vulg. Copt. Syr. Arab. 

Mill, et Griesb. in loc. 



240 KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 

Luke xvii. 35. Ayo eo-ovrtti ev ro) ecyco) &c. is added in 6 MSS. 
several Edit. Vulg. Syr. Peis. Goth. Arab, quotations. — 
probably from Mat. xxiv. 40. for it is wanting in Alex, and 
most other MSS and in Copt. 
IVHll. Grot, and Griesb. in loc. 
Acts viii. 37. is wanting in Alex and about 30 others, in Syr. 
Ethiop. Copt, it has been a marginal illustration fronv Rom. 
X. 9. 

Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. and Prol. 371. Grot, in loc. 

V. 39. For TTvevf^et, Kv^iSy there is wvevf^ot uytov eveTrso-ev eig rev 

£vv6vxov' uyyeMi ^e Kvpia, in Alex, and several other ancient 

MS?>. and in Jerome; but probably added from ch. x. 44. 

or xi. 15. 

Mill, et Griesb. in loc. 

760. III. Other false readings are produced by 
transposition ; and often create difficulties^ which can 
be removed only by correcting them. 

761. 1. The transposition of letters in a word, 
often changes its sense^ or deprives it of all meaning, 
and, in proper names, occasions an appearance of con- 
tradiction. 

The Masora admits the transposition of letters in 62 words, 

but it is more frequent. 
In the Bible, 'nobiff occurs 16 times ; and rhl2^, 27 times, 

" garment ;" the latter is the right reading. Sam. MSS. 

from h>Diy (Arab.) "vestivit." 
Isa. i. 25. n:iD ; perhaps it should be ^D^, " in a furnace." Mic. 

iii. 3. niyxD, " as which."— "iXiyD, " as morsels." 70. Chald. 

Eng. 
Lowth. 
Jer. xii. 4. " He shall not see (un^'^nx) our last end,^^ 70 has, 

'* our waysy''* iJniniN ; this is preferable, n and 1 have been 

transposed, and 1 changed into \ 



KINDS OF FALSE READING^. 241 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. 512. 
Chap, xxviii. 13. noirs and ni^D, "jokes;" the former is 
wrong, but right in 20 MSS. m£3iD is found in 16 MSS. in 
the former place, and in 15 in the latter. HDD is found in 
2 MSS. 

Ken. in loc. and Diss, Gen. § 167. 
Ch. xxxii. 23. " Neither walked,'* *]nnn3, a barbarous word ; 
•]miri3, "in thy law," Keri. above 30 MSS.j, 
lid. 
Zech. xii. 10. "they have pierced," npT, right ; but np"i,"they 
have insulted," in 1 MS. 70. in most copies. 
Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 70. 
Josh, xxiv, 30. " Timnath-sera/i," n*iD. right;— but Judg. ii. 
9. D"in " /leras ;" but mo is found in 6 MSS. Vulg. Syr. 
Arab. 

Ken. ib. and Diss. Gen. § 167. 
Jehoram's only son is called in^THJ^, ** Ahaz-ihu" 18 times; 
right ;— but THJ^in^ " Ihu-ahaz" thrice, and nnnx, " Ahaziah," 
5 times. 
1 Kings X. 11, 12. a\^n'7X— but 2 Chron. ix. 10, 11. O^DuSn. 

762. 2. There are transpositions of words, which 
produce confusion, obscurity, or absurdity. 

Isa. iv. 5. pDD'Sj, " every station." wrong, for Zion was the 
only station; it is wanting in 4 MSS. but added before 
nx"ipQ in above SO MSS. — "all her assemblies," in one 
ancient MS. and 70. right ; it has thus changed its place. 
HUD'Sd, " all the glory." wrong. lUD Sd, " the glory over 
all." Zech. ii. v. 
Ken. et Lowth in loc. 

763. 3. There are likewise transpositions of whole 
clauses, sentences, or periods 5 which occasion diflSi- 
culties of various kinds. 

Exod. XXX. 1 — 10. This passage concerning the altar of in- 
31 



242 KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 

cense, is improper] j inserted here ; it is wanting in the Sam. 
it has been taken from the end of ch. xxvi. where it is want- 
ing in the Heb, but retained in the Sam. and is properly in- 
troduced there, according to ch. xxxi. 6 — 11. xsxv 12 — 16. 
xxxvii. 1. sxxviii. 8 xxxix. 35 — 39. xl. 3 — 7. v. 21 — 30. 

Ken. in loc and Diss. Gen. § 22, 24. 
Job. xl. 1 — 14. These verses improperly interrupt the des- 
cription ; V. 1 5, connects properly with ch. xxxix. SO. They 
have originally followed ch. xlii. 6. where they are proper, 
forming a striking conclusion of the poem, and connected 
with V. 7. "after the Lord had spoken these words unto 
Job." &c. but, at present. Job concludes the poem, which 
occasions great confusion. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. § 23, 16"^. and Remarks on select pas- 
sages. Heath in loc. 
Isa. vii. 8, 9 should stand thus, "head of Syria — of Damascus 
— of Ephraim — of Samaria — and within threescore and five 
years,'' &c. 

Lowth in loc. 
Isa. xxxviii. 21, 22. These two verses are no part of the song, 
and are improper here; v. 22. should follow v. 6. and v. 21. 
after v. 8. So they stand 2 Kings xx 7, 8. 
Lowth in loc. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 23. 

Isa. xli. 6, 7. These two verses are unconnected ; they have 
probably followed ch. xl. 20. where they are proper, and 
prevent abruptness. 

Houbig. in loc. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 23. 

764. IV. Finallyj there are many false readings 
productive of difficulty or error^ which consist in 
change or alteration. 

765. 1. Not only similar letters, but others also, 
have been confounded and interchanged by tran- 
scribers ; and important alterations in the sense have 
thence arisen. 



KINDS OF FALSE READINGS. 248 

The name of Nebuchadnezzar is written in 7 different ways. 
£ Sam. xviii. 12. 'a \y^w, " beware who of Absalom ;" but 'S, 
« preserve to me," in 2 MfeS. Chald. 70. Syr. 
Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 116. 
Isa. i. 29. y^'y, " they ;" but ViJ'nn. " ye shall be ashamed," 
in 2 MSS. one Edit. Chald. Vulg. The connexion requires 
this. 

Lowth and Ken. in loc. 
Ch. vi. 9. 1X^ but nx") in 13 MSS.; regular. 

lid. 
Ch viii. 9. 'sV'y, " associate," but i;rn, "know," in 70. which is 
better; being synonymous with "give ear," in the next line. 
V. 1 1 . nprna, " with a strong hand ;" but x^pTHDj " as taking 
me by the hand," in 1 1 M SS, Syr. Yulg. Sym. 
lid. 
Ch. xiii. 22. vnunSx^. but rnUD")X3, in 1 MS. ; right. 
Ch. xxii. 19. ']0^r\\ " he shall pull thee," but pini*, " I will," 
in Syr. Vulg. ; the connexion requires this. 
lid. 

766. 2. Transcribers have often made a false read- 
ing, by putting one word instead of another. 

Judg. 1. 22. r^ J, " the hoiise of Joseph," but ^Ji, " the sons.^* in 
8 MSS. 70. Arab. 
Ken. in loc. 
2 Chron. xxi. 2 hii^W\ but miH' in above 20 MSS. 70. Vulg. 
The sense requires this. 
Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. p. 83. n. 
Psal. Ixii. 12. 'nrnr, but lJ;?Diy, « we have heard," in 10 MSS. 
Arab. ; this is preferable. 

Id. ib. and Diss. Gen. cod. 255. 
Prov. XV, 20. " A foolish man tuii^, but p son,''^ in 6 MSS. 70. 
Syr. Chald. ; this makes a proper antithesis to " wise son,^' 
Id. ib. Diss. 2. p. 188. Diss. Gen. § 25. and cod. 92. 
Isa. ix. 11. nv, " the enemies," but niy, "the^^Hwcesof Rezin," 
in 21 MSS. 



244 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 

Lowth and Ken. in loc. 
Ch. XXXV. 2. " It shall rejoice with jJ^ll ph'^joy and singingP 
rhl, in 4 MSS. and pT, "Jordan," in "'O. Syr. MSS "the 
well-watered plain of Jordan shall rejoice," on account of 
Christ's baptism there ; it is thus a prediction of it. It has 
perhaps been designedly altered, n*?. *'to it," but "^S, " to 
thee," in 9 MSS. 

Ken, Lowth and Houbig. in loc. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 81, 
176. Lowth, Sacr. Poes. prael. 20 n. 

767. 3. There have sometimes been substitutions 
of whole clauses or sentences, in place of others, to- 
tally diiferent. 

Prov. X. 10. — ** but a prating fool shall fall ;" there is here, 
neither connexion nor antithesis ; it has been taken from v. 
8. where it is proper. — " but he that freely reproveth, work- 
eth safety," in Syr. Arab. 70. ; it thus makes a proper anti- 
thesis ; false and true friendship. 
Ken. Diss. 1. p. 506. Diss. Gen. § 165. 



SECT. IV. 



Rules of judging concerning various Readings, 

768. From the several particular observations con- 
cerning the various readings of Scripture, which have 
been hitherto made, may be deduced such general 
principles as will serve for determining which are spu- 
rious, and which genuine. 

769. The evidences by which various readings may 
be examined, are of two kinds, — external, — and in- 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 245 

ternal ; the former, arising from the authority of MSS. 
Versions, and quotations ; the latter, from the nature 
of the languages, the sense and connexion, and the 
known occasions of false readings ; parallel places par- 
take of the nature of both. 

Michael. Int. Lect. § 16. Marsh's Michael, ch. 6. sect. 13. 

770. When the evidences of both kinds concur in 
favour of a reading, there can be no doubt that it is the 
genuine reading ; and, therefore, we have full assur- 
ance of the genuineness of the great bulk of the Scrip- 
tures as contained in all the common editions. 

771. When the evidence for and against a reading 
is divided, the determination must be made according 
to the circumstances of each particular case. 

772. If the external evidence stands on the one side, 
and the internal on the other, the former ought, in 
general, to determine the question, for it is the most 
direct. 

773. But, the internal evidence may, notwithstand- 
ing, be so strong, as to overbalance a great degree of 
external evidence ; particularly, where the reading 
supported by the latter is palpably false, or, were the 
introduction and prevalence of it can be easily account- 
ed for, without supposing it genuine, as in copies plain- 
ly framed in conformity to the Masora. 

774. Often, both the external and the internal evi- 
dence, is partly for one reading, and partly for ano- 
ther 5 and they are divided with so great varieties of 



246 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 

circumstances, that no rules of deciding, strictly uni- 
versal, can be laid down. 

775. But, if we distinguish various readings into 
four classes — certainly genuine — probable — dubious — 
and false ; it may be possible to determine, with suffi- 
cient precision, the circumstances which entitle a read- 
ing to be placed in one or another of these classes. 

776. 1. There are readings certainly genuine ; and 
there are even different degrees of evidence, which 
may ascertain them to be such ; and all such ought to 
be adopted without hesitation. 

777. Readings are certainly right, and that in the 
very highest sense at all consistent with the existence 
of any various reading, which are supported by several 
of the most ancient, or the majority of MSS. ; by all 
or most of the ancient versions ; by quotations ; by 
parallel places, if there be any, and by the sense ; 
though these readings be not found in the common 
editions, nor, perhaps, in any printed edition. 

Psal. xvi. 10. " Neither wilt thou suffer (yn'Dn) thy saints to 

see corruption ;" it is so rendered every where, as Psal. lii. 

9 Isxix. 2. cxxxii. 9. cxlv. 10 but not true. But it is "{TDn 

" tluj holy one,^^ in Keri, all ancient MSS and the majority 

Jlf, Edit, -if, several editions of the Talmud, Chald. and all 

ancient versions; it is so quoted Acts ii. 25 — 31, xiii. 35 — 

37, and reasoned from. The alteration might have been 

accidental, but, probably, has been designedly retained. 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. 218, 496. Diss. 2. p. 107, 346, 469, 561. 

Diss. Gen. § 17, 35, 64, 85, 86, 150, 179, p. 85. n. lid. 

and Houb. in loc. 

i Kings i. 18. " And now (nn;?l) my lord, knowest not ;" but 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 247 

nnxi " and thoUy'^ in 200 MSS. and Edit. Ch^ld.all versions. 
V. "liO. nn«i « And thou, the eyes of Israel are upon thee;" 
but nn;n, "and now'^ in near 100 MSS Syr. Arab. Vulg. 
Chald. The sense requires both these alterations. 
Ken. Diss. Gen. § 55, et in loc. 

1 Chron. iv. 3. " These are ('3X) the father of Etam, Jezreel," 
&c. ; this is absurd ; but "33 " the sons,''^ in 8 vSS. on the 
margin of 4 more, and all versions. '2X *:2 in 6 MSS. 
Ken. in loc. 

Isa. xxvii. 2. " A vineyard (inn) of red wine ;" but HDH ''the 
beloved vineyard," in 45 MSS. and Edit. 70. Chald. 
Ken. and Lowth in loc. 

Isa Iviii. 3. " Wherefore have we afflicted our souP^ (UU^^J) 
but irty£33 " our sozt/s," in 6 ancient MSS. 21 more, 1 ancient 
Edit. Chald. 70 Vulg. v. 8 "inD ; but nnjl « and the glory," 
in 5 ancient MSS. 11 more. 70. Syr. Vulg. 
Ken. and Lowth in loc. 

Isa. Ix. 21. " The branch (l^t^n) of his planting ;" but yOD 
"oimy planting," in Keri, 7 ancient MSS. 37 more, 6 Edit. 
Chald. Syr. Vulg. Eng. 
lid. ib. 

Isa. Ixiii. 15. "Where is thy powers^^ (^J^nnu; plur.) but ']r\'ina 
sing, in 7 ancient MSS. 25 more, 7 Edit, 
lid. ib. 
Ezek. xxxvi. 23. " I shall be sanctified in you before your eyes" 
(tZ3:5Tj?S ;) but an-yrS "before f/ieireyes"in 191 MSS. 
and Edit. Chald. all versions, Eng. 

Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 48, 55, 108. 

Mat. i. 11. l&>Ttcti h EFENNHSE TON lAKEIM (iflAKEIM) 
lAKElM AE. Thus it is in Edit. H. Steph. and Beza and in 
several MSS.; but wanting in most MtS, and Edit, and in 
all versions ; it is an interpolation. 

Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. Mill. Prol. 702, 1258. 

Lukev. 7. dcrre HAPA TI ^vdt^screeit, "SO that they sunk a little,^^ 



248 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 

Edit. Beza. 2 MSS. Vulg. Copt. Pers. Arab. ; but wanting 
in all others ; it is a gloss. 

Mill and Griesb. in loc. 

Mat. XXV. 29. a,7co h rov f^tj ept^ovros, xxi *0 EXEI ecpSijirsTett, 

" even that which he hathP So it is in all ancient, and in 
the majority of MSS. and in all versions but one. o S'okh 
tx^i^i "which he seemeth to have," is found in several MSS. 
and in Vulg but it is wrong ; it has been corrected from 
Luke viii. 18. 

Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. 
Rom. vii. 6. KotTti^yTthf^^^ «e^o '^ov Uf^av TOY 0ANATOY, in 2 
MSS. Vulg. and a few quotations. — ocTro&xvovroq, " that being 
dead," in 2 MSS. Edit Beza. Eng. — xTroQxvovrsq, **we being 
dead," in Alex, and most MSS. and Edit, Sjr. Arab. 
Ethiop. and several quotations. This last reading is right ; 
so. V. 4. 

lid, ib. Macknight in loc. 
Heb. xii. 20. ^ (ioXiSi Kotrotrolev&ijo-eroci, " or thrust through with 
a dart," wanting in Alex, and above 20. MSS. Vulg. ftyr. 
Arab. Copt. Ethiop. Compl. edit, and several quotations ; it 
has been added from Exod. xix. 13. in 70. 
lid. ib. and Mill. Prol. 991. 

778. Readings are certainly right, which are sup- 
ported by a few ancient MSS. in conjunction with the 
ancient versions, quotations, parallel places, and the 
sense ; though they be not found in most MSS. nor in 
the printed editions ; especially, when the rejection of 
them in these latter can be easily accounted for. 

2 Chron. xi. 18. •' Rehoboam took (p) the son of Jerimoth to 
wife;" but nn "the daughter," in about 13 MSS. Keri. all 
versions, Eng. 
Ken. in loc. 

Psal. xxii. 16. nxD " like a lion my hands and my feet ;" but 
nxj in 8 MSS. nj in 2 MSS. and margin of 3 ; " they 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 249 

pierced," 70. Syr. Vulg. Aq.Eng. The sense requires this, 
and it is a remarkable prediction ; it has been altered, per- 
haps, by accident, but retained by design. 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. S20, 499. Diss. Gen. §iii c 39. Id. and 
Houbig. in loc. Lowth, Sacr. Poes. Prael. 28. 
Psal xxviii. 8. " The Lord is (inS) their strength ;" but there 
is no antecedent, (i^;'"?) " of his people,'* in 6 MSS. and all 
versions. 

Ken in loc. and Diss. Gen. c. 39. 
Isa. Ivi. 12. nnpkX "/will fetch wine, and we will fill," &c. 
nnpJ " we will," &c. in 1 ancient MS. Chald. Syr. Vulg. 
The sense requires this. 
Lowth in loc. 
Ezek. xi. 7. >?'Vin " he hath brought thee forth ;" this gives no 
sense— N*:f1N « / will bring," &c. in 37 MSS. all versions, 
Eng. 

Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen, § 48. p. 83. n. 
Mat. ii. 18. S-pj^vo^ }cxi, wanting in 4 MSS. Syr. Copt. Arab. 
Ethiop. Pers. Vulg. Justin Mart. Jerom. Jer. xxxi. 13. it has 
been inserted in most MSS. from 70. • 
Mill, and Griesb. in loc. Mill. Prol. 384. 
Eph. V. 9. O yctp KxpTToi Tov TTvevf^uro^, "the fruit of the Spirit^' 
in most MSS. and Edit. ; but ^&»ro5, " of the light," in x\lex. 
and 9 more, Vulg. Syr. Copt. Ethiop. and several quotations. 
The connexion shows this last reading to be right ; it has 
been altered, because uncommon, from Gal, v. 22. 
Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. 

779. Readings in the Pentateuch, supported by the 
Samaritan copyj a few Hebrew MSS. the ancient ver- 
sions, parallel places, and the sense, are certainly right, 
though they be not found in the generality of Hebrew 
MSS. nor in editions. 

Gen. xlvii. 3. "Thy servants are {^V^) a shepherd;" but 'p 
" shepherds," in about 30 MSS. and Sam. 
32 



250 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 

Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 54. 
Gen. 1. 25 " Ye sliall carry up my bones (HTd) from hence ;" 
but CDDniS riTD " from hence with you,^^ in 11 MS», Sam. all 
Vers. Exod. xiii. 19 

Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 48. 
Lev. ix. 21. "As Moses commanded" — ni^'n r\J< nin% "as 
Jehovah commanded Moses,'* in 28 MSS. Sam. 70 Arab. 

780. Readings in the Pentateuch, supported by the 
Samaritan, ancient versions, parallel places, and the 
sense, are certainly right, though they be not found in 
any Hebrew MSS. now extant. 

Gen. ii. 24. inx ^^"ih vr\\ "And they shall be one flesh"— but 
onosyD n^m, " And they *ie;o," in Sam. text and Vers. 70. 
Ital. Syr. Arab. Vulg So Matth. xix. 5. Mark x. 8. 1 Cor. 
vi. 16 Eph. V. 31. Philo. Tertul. Epiph. Jerom. Aug. 
Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 17, 64, 77, 79, 85, 86 
Exod. vi. 20. " ^he bare him Aaron and Moses," — "And 
Miriam their sister," is added in Sam. text and Vers 70. 
■ Syr. 

Ken. in loc. and Diss Gen. § 177. 
Exod. xii. 40. "The sojourning of the children of Israel, which 
they dwelt in Egypt, was 430 years " But this is not true; 
it was only 215 ; it contradicts Gal. iii. 17. which says, that 
it was only 430 from the calling of Abraham, of which 215 
elapsed before the going into Egypt, Gen. xii. 4 xvii. 1, 21. 
XXV. 26, xl. 9 — "Of the children of Israel and of their fa- 
thers (onnxi Sam. Alex, and Aid. 70.) which they sojourned 
in the land of Canaan, and in the land {\V^^ pN2l, Sam. 7^.) 
of Egypt," &c. 

Capel. Grit. Sacr. p. 314. Houbig. Prol. & in loc. Ken, 
in loc. Diss. 1. p. 396. Diss. Gen § 136. 

781. Ancient MSS. supported by some of the an- 
cient versions, and the sense, render a reading certain- 
ly right, though it be not found in the more modern. 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 251 

Isa. Iviii. 10. " Draw out thy soul ("jB^33) to the hungry;" this 
is obscure and singular ; but ]Dn^ " thy bread,^^ in 3 ancient 
M5?>. 5 more. ^yr. ; the 70. has both, uprov £k "^fyvx^i, 
Lowth and Ken. in loc. 

782. Ancient MSS. supported by parallel places^ 
and the sense, may show a reading to be certainly 
right. 

Isa. Ixi. 4. "They shall build." Who? HDD "who Spring 
from thee," in 2 ancient MSS. 2 more. ch. Iviii. 12. 
Kimchi. 
Ken. and Lowth in loc. 

783. The concurrence of the most ancient, or of 
a great number of MSS. along with countenance 
from the sense, is sufficient to shew a reading to be 
certainly right. 

Isa. Ivii. 13. " Let thy companies deliver */iee," "jS"*!:"* (sing.) 
but "jlVv^ (plui'O in 10 ancient MSS. 29 more. 2 oldest 
Edit. 

Ken. and Lowth in loc. 

784. The concurrence of the ancient versions is 
sufficient to establish a reading as certainly right, when 
the sense, or a parallel place, shows both the propri- 
ety of that reading, and the corruption of what is found 
in the copies of the original. 

Prov. xviii. 22. " He that findeth a wite, findeth a good thing," 
This is not true ; it contradicts other maxims ; but n:nn 
" a good wife," in 70. isyr. Arab. Vulg. and several MSS. of 
Chald. 

Ken. Diss. 2 p. 189. 

Isa. xli. 3. "He passed (OlSts^) peace $^^ 3 is omitted, "m 
peace ;" so 70. Vulg. Eng. v. 4. " Who hath wrought and 



252 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 

done," this is defective. — nSj5 "these things," 1 ancient MS. 
70. VuJg. Chald. Eng. has " it." 

Ken. and Lowth in loc. 
Isa. Iv. 9. " For the heavens are higher than the earth, so," 
&c. — D "as" is omitted; but found in all ancient Vers. 
Eng. Psal, ciii. IL ; the sense requires it. 

Houbig. Ken. Lowth in loc. 
Isa. Ivi. 5. " Unto them will I give— I will give (lS) /iim," 
but 10^ " iAem," in TO. Sjr. Vulg. Chald. Eng. The sense 
requires it. 

Lowth in loc. 
Isa. lix. 20. " Unto them that turn (':3B?Sl) from transgression in 
Jacob (:2pj?'3)" Eng. but Tk/H) " and shall turn away trans- 
gression )2'py'D)from Jacob," in TO. Syr, Chald. Rom xi. 26. 

Lowth in loc. 

785. In a text evidently corrupted, a paralleL place 
may suggest a reading certainly genuine. 

Judg. vli. 18. "Say, of the Lord and of Gideon;" this is de- 
fective. " The sword,^^ :}nn supplied from the execution, v. 
20. Eng. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. §1^8, 167. 

2 Kings XXV. 3. " On the ninth day of the — month ;" this 
is defective.— V'2"in " the fourth,'' Jer. lii. 6. 
Ken. ib § 108, I IS. 

1 Chron. i. 17. "The sons of bhem were Aram and Uz," 

&c. " But the sons of Aram," Gen. x. 23. D1K 'J31 is 
omitted, and ) prefixed to p;7. 

Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. c. 175. 

Isa xvi 7 — 10, "For '^'WVi the foundations^^ (^K^JX "men^^' 
Jer. xlviii 31.) " of Kirhareseth" (" Kirharesh," v. 11. and 
Jer. ib. 36.) '* shall ye mourn" a'«JJ 1>< (' surely they 
are stricken," Eng.) but 7U joins these words with the next 
verse, p.iK'n niD-it; 'D " for the fields of fl^^shbon languish ;" 
they render it, " and the fields of Heshbon shall not be put 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 253 

to shame," which is wrong; but 2 MSS. and Arab have 
read pntyn niDliy iDb:32 1^, probably right. V. 9. ** For the 
shouting ITT] {' the spoiler or destroyer,' mis', Jer. ib. 32. 
Ghald.) for thy harvest p'Vp {^"■^^ ' "P^^^ *^J vintage,' Jer. 
ib. Chald. 70. Syr.) is fallen." V. 10. "The treaders -|mn 
(right, and corrects ITT} in v. 9. Jer. ib. 33.) shall tread out 
no wine ; I have made the shouting to cease,'^^ "n^K^n (" the 
shouting is made to cease," nDBTi, Jer. ib. 33. 70.) 
Lowth in loc 

Isa. XXX. 17. " At the rebuke of five shall ■ you 

flee ;" this is defective — n^Iil " ten thousand of you," Lev. 
xxvi. 8. Deut. xxxii. 30. 
Lowth in loc 

Isa. xxxvi. 7. " If thou say," sing. — but " ?/e," plur. 2 Kings 
xviii. 22. Chald 70. 2 ancient MSS. The connexion re- 
quires this ; for v. 21. " they held their peace." — Oj^n " the 
people," 2 Kings ib 36. 1 MS. 
Ken. and Lowth in loc. 

Isa. xxxvii 9 " When he heard it," ^Dt^^l, tautologous ; it is 
wanting in 1 ancient MS. — 2^') "he returned," 2 Kings 
xix. 9. 70. i. e. " he sent again." lid. 

v. 14. "Read if — spread if;" it should be, " them.^* a has 
been put for in, 2 Kings ib. 14. v 18. "have laid waste all 
the lands (nunxn) and their land." O^U " the nations," 
2 Kings ib. 17. and 10 MSS.— v. 20. ^J "we beseech thee," 
is wanting; to be supplied from 2 Kings ib. 19 18 M^S. — 

"thou, Jehovah, art the only " this is defective. — 

CD'n^K " God," ib. — V. 21. " that which thou hast prayed 

," defective. — ^r)V^\i; "I have heard." Ib. 20. 

Syr. 70. 

786. Readings certainly genuine, ought to be re- 
stored to the text of the printed editions, though 
hitherto admitted into none of them, that they may 
henceforth be rendered as correct as possible ; they 
ought; likewise; to be adopted in all versions of Scrip- 



254 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 

ture ; and, till this be done, they ought to be followed 
in explaining it 

787. 2. There are various readings, probably 
genuine ; when the evidence preponderates, but is not 
absolute decisive, in their favour ; of which kind, as 
criticism is not always susceptible of certainty, are far 
the greatest part of various readings ; and the degrees 
of probability being infinite, according to the number- 
less minute alterations of circumstances, down from 
certainty to perfect doubtfulness, it is impossible to 
enumerate fully all the cases which fall under this 
head ; but the most general cases may be distinguished. 

788. Of two readings, neither of whirh is unsuit- 
able to the sense, either of which may have naturally 
arisen from the other, and both which are supported 
by MSS., versions and quotations; the one will be 
more probable than the other, in proportion to the pre- 
ponderance of the evidence which supports it ; and 
that preponderance admits a great variety of degrees. 

Gen. X. 4. " Dodanim," Heb. most MSiS. Chald. Vulg. " Ro- 
daniiij," in a few MSS. 70. 1 Chron. i. 7. Masor. and most 
MSv-s ; the last is rather probable. 
Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § 90. 

Isa. h. 5. " Then shalt thou see ( 'J^in) and flow together" — 
\<rr\ " shalt thou/«ar," in 10 ancient i\lS>. 30 others ; this 
last is most agreeable to the structure, for it makes the clause 
parallel to the next line, 

V. 6. " The praises (ni^nn) of Jehovah"— nbnn « praise," in 
S3 MSS. 3 Edit, ancient Vers. 

V. 9. " The ships of Tarshish (nJty^-in) the first." 

2 is prefixed, " as at the first," in 25 MSS. and Syr. 
Ken. and Lowth in loc. 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 255 

Math. V. S7. TO/5 «,f%«/o/5, wanting in 51 MSS. Compl. Syr. 
Goth. Copt. Eihiop. Arab, it has been taken from v. 21. 
]V!ill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. 

Mat. vi. 4. £v TM (peivepa), wanting in 6 MSS. Vulg. Copt, and 
sonie quotations ; but found in most MSS. Syr. Arub. Pers. 
and more quotations ; the sense shews it to be right. 
Mill, and Griesb. in loc. W hitby Exam. 1. 2 c 2. s. 1. 

Luke ii. 22. " The days of their (etvrejv) purification" - ayrj?? in 
2 MSS. Vulg. Arab. Eng — xvrov in 7 M>S. and Aug. ; but 
both are wrong, for uvrav is best supported, Alex, and 11 
other MS -^. Syr. Pers Ethiop. Goth. Origen. ; it has been 
altered, to avoid imputing impurity to Jesus. 

Griesb in loc. Mill, ib.and Prol. 176, 759, 1438. 

John ii. 17. xetre^etys, Com Edit. — xetTu(pctysret(, in Alex, and 
47 other M^S. Origen. Compl. 2 R. feteph. 
Mill, and Griesb. in loc. 

Acts iii. 20, '* He shall send Jesus Christ (rov ^^ojcefcstpvyf^svov) 
who was before preached unto you," in many ^JSS and 
Vulg — but 7rpoKex£ipi<^f^£vov ** before appointed,^^ in Alex. 32 
more, some them ancient, fryr. Arab ancient quotations. 
2 Edit. U. Steph. the last is most probable, and is confirmed 
by TTpex.expi^'f^evov being in the Ethiop. which might be easily 
coirupted from it. 

Acts XX. 28. " To feed the church" — rev ;^/)/c-roy, Syr. quota- 
tions; but it is wrong. — Kvpiov y.ott S-sov, in 2i MfeS. quota- 
tions ; yet wrong — avpiov, in Ales, and 5 more very ancient 
Mi^S. Armen. Iren. and other quotations ; preferred by some 
for the antiquity of authorities. — B-eov^ in most MSS. Vulg. 
Ethiop. quotations ; generally preferred for the number of 
authorities. This last seems rather probable, as there might 
be a motive to alter it, or add a gloss. 

Mill, in loc. and Prol. 1365. Grot. Benson, and Griesb. 
in loc. 

1 Tim. iii. 16. Great is the mystery of godliness ; God (^ee$) 
was manifest," &c. So it is in almost all iMSS. Alex, is 
doubtful ; but it is never so quoted by the Fathers in contro- 



256 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 

versies, prior to Gregory of Njssa ; it is said to have been 
put ill by Macedonius or Anastasius; it suits the sense best, 
and is probable. — o, in Clerm. Vulg. Syr. Ethiop.* Armen. 
and several Latin quotations ; " the mystery manifest in the 
flesh," is harsh. — «$, in I MS. perhaps also in Alex, and in 
several Greek quotations ; it seems, from the accusation of 
Macedonius to have been then common ; but it has no an- 
tecedent Any of these readings is easily accounted for. 
MilK in loc and Prol. 489, 1034, 1035. Wetst. Prol. c. 

16. § 12. Crell. in loc. Vorst. ib. Benson, ib. Griesb. 

ib. Syke's Connex. c. 12. 

789. Of two readings equally, or almost equally, 
supported by external evidence, that is probable, which 
best suits the sense, or the nature of the language, or 
which could not, so readily as the other, have been 
written by mistake. 

Isa xxxiv. 16. "My mouth, it (xin "'3) hath commanded, and 
his Spirit,'' &c. Here is a disagreeable change of person ; 
but mn' '3, " the mouth of Jehovah," in 3 ancient MSS. 2 
others. 70. 

Ken. and Lowth in loc. 

2 Cor. V. 15. "If {ei) one died for all," is omitted in many 
MSS. some of them very ancient, and in quotations; but 
the sense requires it ; and it might be easily left out be- 
fore sh- 

Mill. Kust- Griesb, in loc. and Prol. 748. 

2 Tim. ii. 19. Eyy<y Kv^iog ro ouf^ec Xpio-rov ; but x^vptcv, in 

23 MSS. most ancient. Vulg. Syr. Arab. Copt. Ethiop. quo- 
tations. The sense requires it. 

Mill. Kust. and Griesb. in loc. 

790. The sense, and other internal evidences, may 
even render the reading of a few MSS. probable, in 
in opposition to that of the greater number, and of ver- 
sions and quotations. 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 257 

Psal. xxii. 1. "Why hast thou forsaken me?" ^jnSTj; ; but 
'JnnDiy in l MS. ; this comes nearer to c-uSax^etu in Matth. 
xxvii. 46. Mark xv. 34. but it is not the same, and, there- 
fore has not been altered from design ; it is, consequently* 
of greater authority. " Why art thou so tar from helping 
me.' "njriB'^D ; but ^n;;iiJ'D « from my cry." in 6 MSS. :— this 
last is probable. 
Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. c. 36, 216. 

Isa. V. 1. " Now will I sing to my beloved." — ^tff 

" a song," is added in I ancient MS. and the metre requires 
it. — " A song of my beloved,''^ *nn ; perhaps for ann " of 
loves." This avoids the impropriety of making the author 
the same to whom it is sung. 
Lowth and Ken. in loc. 
Isa. ix. 14. " The Lord will cut off head and tail, &c. av 
nnx one day." — QV3 " in one day," in 8 MSS. Eng. The 
sense requires it. 
Ken. and Lowth, ib. 
Isa. X. 5. " Assyrian, the rod of mine anger m^3 ^in ntDDI 
■•DyT, " and he the staff in their hand is my indignation. 
But m^D, in 2 ancient MSS. 3 more. 70. Alex, "the 
staff in whose hand is mine indignation." The sense re- 
quires this, 
lid. ib. 
Isa. xix. 12. " Where are thy wise men ? — and let them tell." 
1 is here superfluous and embarrassing. )H2, "let them 
come, and," &c. is added in 2 MSS. and is agreeable to the 
structure. "And let them know," U'TI—" let them declare." 
)^n)\ 70. Vulg. 
Lowth in loc. 
Isa. xxv. 2. " Thou hast made a palace of strangers (O^^T) to 
be no city.*' am, " the proud," in 2 MSS. and 70. these 
two words are often confounded ; the last is preferable. — 
O'ly "adversaries," in 1 MS. but less probable. — V, 5. 
" the noise (an?) of strangers ;" but an? in 70. which 
makes it parallel to " terrible," as Psal. liv. 5. Ixxxvi. 14. 
33 



258 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 

lid. in loc. 
Isa. XXX. 32. " where moiD the grounded staff shall pass ;" this 
gives no sense, n^DlD, " the rod of correction" in 2 MSS. 
Prov. xxii. 15. 

lid. ib. 
Acts xi. 20. " They spake Trpo^ rovg f AAajv/s-ees, to the hellenistical 
Jews ;" so most MSS. but it answers not to v. 19. the in- 
formation is of no moment, and is not new, ch. vi. 1. eAA^jvaj, 
in Alex. Vulg. Syr. Arab. Ethiop. " Greeks," Gentiles. 
'Fhis is proper, and gives new information ; it was the first 
instance after Peter. 

Mill. Benson, and Griesb. in loc. 
2 Cor. V. 3. " If so be that being clothed [sv^va-uf^evot) we shall 
not be found naked." So most MSS. Vers. Clem. Alex., 
some copies of Ambrose and Chrysost. ; but the sentiment is 
trifling, and connects not with v. 2. nor v. 4. — cKS'vTecf^svot, 
" we be even unclothed ;" in Clerm. Germ, both very ancient, 
some copies of Ambr. and Chrys. Ital. Tertul. twice. This 
implies a seeming contradiction, and therefore has been cor- 
rected into the former reading. But the contradiction is 
not real ; " though stript of our body by death, we shall not 
be naked, because we shall receive a glorious body,' v. 1. 
this connects well with v. 2. and v. 4, and is most probable. 

Mill, in loc. 

791. The Samaritan Pentateuch^ alone may render 
a reading in the books of Moses highly probable, if it 
be supported by the sense, connexion, or parallel pla- 
ces, in opposition to another found in MSS. and ver- 
sions, but unsuitable to these internal circumstances. 

Gen. XX. 13. xxxv. 7. a'nS>J, meaning the true God, has here a 
plural verb, Vv'hich is wrong ; but it is singular in Sam. in all 
the copies of it. 

792. One or a few ancient versions, may render a 
reading probable, when it is strongly supported by the 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 259 

sense; connexion^ or parallel places, in opposition to 
one which suits not these^ though found in other ver- 
sions and in MSS. 

Gen. xiv. 20. *' He gave tythes'* — ambiguous, whether Mel- 
chizedeck or Abraham ; it seems rather the former ; but it 
was the latter, Heb. vii. 4. and 70 Aid. and Vat. have c^^xfiv 
uvru AQpetxf^L, which is probably genuine. 
Ken. Diss. Gen, § 31. 

Isa. V. 30, I^n"? 13331, " and he shall look to the earth," Heb. 
70. Vat. and Alex. — but, " to the heaven above, and to the 
earth below," in MSS. of 70. and in Copt, which is proper, 
and agreeable to ch. viii. 22. ; it is countenanced by 70, 
Compl. and Aid. " to the heaven above, and below,'* and by 
Arab. " to the heaven, and to the earth below," though both 
are also defective. 
Lowth in loc. 

Isa. ix. 20. " They shall eat every one the flesh of his own 
flrwi," iy*)?. but this is inconsistent with v. 21. or an anti- 
climax. Ij^i, *' of his neighbour," Chald, so Jer, xix. 9. The 
70. renders both, m lipetxt^vo^ r« e(.hX(pov uvm. 
Lowth ib. 

Isa. xiii. 14. *' It shall be as the chased roe." What } — " the 
remnant," 1N*«y, 70. 
Lowth ib, 

Isa. xl. 5. « All flesh shall see— together." What ?•—" the sal- 
vation of God." 70. Luke iii. 6. Isa. lii. 10. 

Lowth ib 
Isa. xli. 1. " Keep silence," IK^nnn. — " be renewed," It^nnn, 
70. agreeably to the">tructure. 
Lowth ib^ 

793. The concurrence of all, or most of the an- 
cient versions^ in a reading not found in MSS. now 
extant^ renders it probable^ if it be agreeable to the 
sense^ though not absolutely necessary to it. 



260 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS, 

1 Sam. ix. 7. ^'vh, " to the man ;" but Q^nSKH iy^«S, "to the 

the man of God," in only IMS. but in Chald. and all the 

ancient versions. 

Ken in loc. and Diss. Gen. p. 87. n. 
Psal. xcvii. 11. "Light is soum,^^ j;il : this is a harsh metaphor ; 

but nnr, " ariseth," in all the ancient versions except Chald. 

So Psl. cxii. 4. 
Isa. xxxi. 6. " They have revolted," ip^Dj^n ; but, " ye have 

revolted," lp"D;;n in all the ancient versions. 
Lowth ib. 

794. Conjectural readings^ strongly supported by 
the sense, the connexion, the nature of the language, 
or similar texts, may sometimes have probability ; es- 
pecially, when it can be shown, that they would easily 
have given occasion to the present reading : and, read- 
ings, first suggested merely by conjecture, have, in 
several cases, been afterwards found to be actually in 
MSS. 

Gen. i. 8. "And God saw that it was good," is wanting of the 
second day, but is found in v. 10. in the middle of the third 
day. Either, " and the evening," &c. has been transposed 
from V. 10. to v. 8. or " and God saw," &c. from v, 8. to v. 
10. This last seems preferable ; for the 70. has it in both 
places. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. § 80, 81. 

Josh. xxiv. 19. )h:i)T) nS, " Fe cannot serve the Lord." This 
seems strange, after exhortations to serve him, and before 
reasons for serving him. )hDn iih, " cease not to serve the 
Lord," properly enforced by the reasons which follow. 
Hallet's Notes, V. 3. p. 2. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 375. 

Psal. Ixxviii. 2. is not suitable to the Psalm, which is histori- 
cal ; the pronoun is sing, but plur. in v. 3. It is quoted 
Mat. xiii. 35. as from a prophet, and as a prediction of the 
Messiah's speaking in parables ; it is, likewise, originally 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 261 

quoted from Isaiah, in Porphyr. Jerom. some copies in his 
time, and 3 MSS. and therefore has been originally in 
Isaiah. 

Wetst. Griesb. and Mill, in loc. 
Isa. xxiv. 15. "Glorify the Lord anxi in the fires ;^^ the 
word is irregular. Q^ilx:: in 23. MSS. regular, but strange. 
Hence several conjectures. O'lN'D, "in the rivers." 
onn:], "in the mountains." O^D«3, a^D;;^, " among the 
nations." CD^*n:3, ** in the islands or distant coasts :" this 
last is most probable. 

Lowth in loc. 
Isa. XXX. 18. " Therefore will he be exalted on^ that he may 
have mercy." CDn% "be silent," which is more agreeable 
to the structure and the sense. 

Lowth, ib. 
Isa. xlii. 20. mu'i n^xn, '* Thou seest many things." mx'^, 
"seeing," Keri. 107 MSS. 5 Edit. Eng.— but probably 
niNl n''X'^, " seeing thou shalt see," i. e. " surely, indeed." 
See ch. vi. 9. V^^\ " he heareth," wrong. ^'Diyn, " thou 
hearest," in 40 MSS. and all the ancient versions ; the sense 
requires this. 

Lowth, ib. 

795. Probable readings may have so high a degree 
of evidence, as justly entitles them to be inserted into 
the text, in place of the received readings much less 
probable. Such as have not considerably higher pro- 
bability than the common ones, should only be put on 
the margin ; but, they, and all others, ought to be 
weighed with impartiality. 

796. 3. Readings are dubious, when the evidence 
for, and against them, is so equally balanced, that it 
is difficult to determine which of them preponderates. 



262 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 

797. When MSS., versions^ and other authorities, 
are equally, or almost equally, divided between read- 
ings which all suit the sense and connexion, it is diffi- 
cult to determine which of them ought to be preferred. 

Gen. iv. 15. pb, " therefore," Heb. Sam. Aq.— p xS, « not so," 
70. Syr. Vulg. Theodot. Sym. 
Ken. Diss. Gen. § 78. 

Isa. iii. 8. " To provoke the eyes ('J;?) of his glory," common 
Edit, many MSS. irregular. — '}y, most MSS. several Edit. 
'i on a rasure in one MS. : in one MS. "' in one MS.; per- 
haps it should be p;;, " the cloudy'^ alluding to that above the 
tabernacle. 

Lowth and Ken. in loc. 
Isa. xix. 18. *'One shall be called the city onnn of destruc- 
tion," in most MSS. and Edit. Aq. Theodot. Syr some 
think, to intimate the destruction of the Jewish temple in 
Egypt ; others, as in the Arabic it signifies " a lion," for 
Lentopolis. Dinn, « of the sun," in 11 MSS. 5 Edit. Sym. 
Vulg. Arab. 70. Compl. Talmud, several copies of the 12th 
century mentioned by Aben Ezra, quoted by Onias in favour 
of the Jewish temple in Egypt, as predicting the place of it, 
Heliopolis. Some prefer the former, which they think, has 
been corrupted by Onias, designedly, in some copies of the 
Heb. and most of the 70. which have uo-ehK, "of righteous- 
ness." Others prefer the latter, which they think has been 
corrupted by the Jews of Palestine designedly, from ha- 
tred to the Egyptian temple. Perhaps the latter is rather 
preferable. 

Ken. in loc. and Diss. Gen. § £1, 126. LoWth in loc. 
Ikenii Diss. 16. Owen's State of the 70. p. 41. Bry- 
ant's Obs. p. 131. 
Mat. V. 22. " Angry with his brother c ;xjj without cause'^ most 
MSS. Syr. Copt. Goth. Cypr.— wanting in 3 MSS. Vulg. 
Arab. Ethiop. Justin. Irense. &c. in Greek copies according 
to Augustin. 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 263 

Mill, in loc. and Prol. 302, 343, 369, 384, 857, 1256. 

Whitbj, Exam. 1. 2. c 1. § 1. Campbell and Griesb. 

in loc. 

Mat. vi. 13. *Ot< G-a eo-Tiv ^ jicta-t^^sict, &c. most MSS. Syr. Goth. 

Chrysost. — but wanting in 3 most ancient MSS. Compl. 

Hebrew of the Nazarenes Vulg. Copt. Arab. Sax. Orig. 

Cyril. Greg. Nyss. all Latin Fathers, and in Luke xi. It 

was the common conclusion in Greek liturgies, whence it has 

been interpolated. 

Mill, in loc. and Prol. 385, 888. 1098, 1360, Whitby, ib. 
§ 2. Campbell and Griesb. in loc. 

John vi. 56. there is added, KxOiUi ev sf^ot o ttxttjp, %ccy<o ev ra 
TTxrpi, Afiijv, ctfATiV Xeyoi if^tv, sxv fit} Xet^oiirs ro creofA^ot, ra viov 
rov ocvCpaTTov, ag rov cc^rov ttj^ t^aviq, hk e%£Te ^uviM sv uvrco^ in 
Camb. gr. and lat. Mill, thinks it genuine, (Prol. 779, 780, 
1268.) but it has been interpolated from a gloss. 
Simon, N. T. p. 1. c. 30. Campbell and Griesb. in loc. 

2 Cor. \\. 3. " Corrupted ccyro r^ u7rXoTi}ro<; from the simplic- 
ity.'* — <iyvoT3}r(»5, " chastity," ancient Latin quot. — ciyvort}- 
Ttf5 KXt TJJ5 ^TrXoTiiTos, SOmC ancient MSS. — uTrXortjTo^ teen uy- 
voTTjToi, one MS. Mill, in loc. thinks these a gloss; but ac- 
cording to Kuster. preef. they are genuine ; no gloss was 
necessary, nor are the words synonymous ; they both refer 
to what precedes. 

Rom. xi. 6. El h e| epyeov, &c. to end of the verse, are found in 
the greatest number of MsS.but wanting in the most ancient, 
Alex. Clerm. Germ. Vulg. Copt. 

Erasm. Zeger. Est. Grot. Mill. Griesb. in loc. 

1 John ii. 23. *0 oy^cMyav rov u;ov, %<x,] rev Trarspot, ex^h wanting 
in most MSS. but found in Alex, and 12 more.— interpola- 
tion or omission equally easy, and no argument can be drawn 
from the connexion. They are inserted in Eng. in a different 
character. 

Mill, and Griesb. in loc. 



264 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 

798. The sense^ and other internal evidences, may 
plead so strongly for one reading, and the authority of 
MSS. and versions so strongly for another, as to ren- 
der it doubtful which ought to be preferred. 

Isa. i. 13. n^2fri TN*, Eng. "iniquity, even the solemn meet- 
ing." There are many different translations ; the sense of all 

of them good, but not arising naturally from the phrase 

v>j5-£/av. CDiy, 70. "the fast and the solemn meeting;" it 
was natural to mention it, as Joel i. 14. ii. 15. 
Houbig. and Lowth in Loc. 

Rom. vii. 25. Ev^ot^iTM ra, ©tea, " I thank God," most MSS. 
and Vers- — xcx,^i<i ^e rut Qeo), " But thanks be to God," in 3 
M.sS. and Jerom. ; but this is synonymous with the former, 
and worse supported. — z^?'^ '^^ ®^^> " the grace of God," in 
4 ancient MS8. Vulg. Irense. Orig. and other quotations. 
This gives a proper answer, and is a proper proof of the 
inference in ch. viii. 1. 

Mill, in loc. and Prol. 679, 934, 1332. Locke in loc. 

799. Both the external and the internal evidence 
may be so much divided between two readings, as to 
render it doubtful which of them demands the pre- 
ference. 

Hom. xii. 11. Tu KYPin S'tiXivovrsi, " serving the Lord,^^ Alex. 
12 more. Vulg, Syr. Arab. Ethiop. several Greek quot 
all the Latin except Ambr. Edit. Compl. 1 Erasm. Bez. 
This gives a good and obvious sense, and points out the 
object of zeal. — Kuipa), " the opportunity," in 2 of Steph. mss. 
Clerm. Germ. Ital. Ambr. Edit. 2. &c. of Erasm. Steph. 
This, too, gives a proper sense, the regulation of zeal ac- 
cording to seasons, but less obvious, and therefore might be 
altered. 
Mill, in loc. and Prol. 643. Crell. Vorst. Griesb. in loc. 

800. There are passages, especially in the Old 
Testament, where the paucity of independent MSS. 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 265 

or their discord ance^ the obscurity, or the variations, 
of the versions, or other defects of evidence for any 
one reading, render it very doubtful what is the gen- 
uine reading, and leave room for different conjectures. 

Isa. ix. 9. "All the people {):;t) shall know:^ What? 
1(13:11, " carry themselves haughtily,'* which makes it parallel 
to the next clause, Chald. — 1j;t, "are depraved," Houbig. 
1 MS. — n3l% ** shall speak," referring to IDK^, " and say," 
in the next line. Seeker. 
Lowth in loc. 

Isa. xvli. 2. " The cities ^V^V of Aroer are forsaken," but, 
to say, cities of a city is improper, and it has no relation to 
Damascus. — 'i}^ "IJ^, "for ever," 70. — "are laid waste," 
Chald. 
Lowth, ib. 

Isa. Hi. 15. " So (ni^) shall he sprinkle many nations." This 
is the constant sense, here supposed metaphorical, of the 
word ; but it is always followed by h^^.-^B-eiVf^aTovreit, " ma- 
ny nations shall admire," 70. thus it is parallel to the next 
clause ; but what have they read ? — I'M!}' is so used. ch. ii. 
2. Jer. xxxi. 12. li. 44. but it is unlike the other word. 
(Seeker.) — V.n* is like it, and is used for "looking with 
approbation or admiration," Psal. xi. 7. xvii. 15. xxvii. 4. 
Ixviii. 2. and for "looking on God," Exod. xxiv. 11. Job. 
xix. 26. (Durel. Jubb.) 
Lowth in loc. 

801. No dubious reading should be taken into the 
text, in place of what is already there ; for, no al- 
teration ought to be made in the received copies, with- 
out positive reason ; and, such dubious readings as 
are already in the text, should be marked as such, 
and the others put on the margin ; but, every person 
is at liberty to use his own judgment in choosing which 
he pleases. 

34 



266 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 

802. 4. There are readings which are wrong ; 
and of this kind, are far the greatest" part of the varia- 
tions from the received copies ; but, to it belong, like- 
wise, several which have, by the injudiciousness, the 
inattention, or the prejudices of transcribers and edi- 
tors, been admitted into these ; and such readings are 
either certainly wrong, — or, probably wrong. 

803. All readings are certainly wrong, which stand 
in opposition to the several classes of readings certain- 
ly genuine ; of which, therefore, many examples have 
been already given ; but others may, without impro- 
priety, be added ; particularly, such as have been 
very generally received, and yet bear plain marks of 
their being corruptions, as implying barbarism, incon- 
sistency, or the like. 

1 Sam. ii. 3. tDD*3rD pnjr ^«2^% "let— arrogancy come out of 
your mouth."— nS is omitted, "let not," &c. Chald. 70. 
Syr. Arab. Eng. The sense requires it, — iJDna kSi, " and 
actions are not weighed ;" this is absurd ; bu )h), " and by 
him," Keri, about 40 McS. Eng, Vulg. 
Ken. in loc. and Diss. I. p. 450. 
1 Sam, xii. 10. ippT'l, " and they cried, ")Dii^) and he said." 
but nDiS^l, "and they said " Keri, above 50 MSS. 
Ken. ib. and Diss. Gen. § 38. 

804. Readings which imply barbarism, solecism, or 
absurdity, may be pronounced certainly wrong, though 
we know of no reading, certainly right, to be substitut- 
ed in their place. 

Isa. xliv, 8. inin no where occurs. — in^^n in 2 MSS. perhaps 
it should be )i<yr)j " fear ye." Seeker. 
Lowth in loc. 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 267 

805. All readings are probably wrongj which stand 
in opposition to such as are probably genuine ; and 
these, too^ have been already exemplified in many 
instances. 

806. Readings which imply considerable irregular- 
ity, or impropriety, are probably false, though it 
be not clear what reading should be adopted instead 
of them. 

807. Readings, certainly or very probably false^ 
ought to be expunged from the editions of the Scrip- 
tures, and departed from in versions of them, how- 
ever long and generally they have usurped a place 
there, as being manifest corruptions, which impair the 
purity of the sacred books. 

808. Among texts, the true reading of which is con- 
troverted, the most remarkable in several respects is 
1 John V. 7, 8. where the words, sv rca ov^uva)^ o ^rccTfjP 
Xoyog, zat to o^yiov Tvsvf^oc, fcut ovros ot T^sig iv star 
xoci Tgeig siffiv fjt^oc^rv^ovvreg ev rr; y??, are by some held 
to be genuine, and by others to be spurious ; and, all 
the kinds of evidence, both external and internal, hav- 
ing been urged on both sides, it is only by a fair com- 
parison of them all, that it can be determined, in 
which of the four classes this reading out to be 
placed. 

Mill, in loc. Wet . ib. Bengel. ib. Griesb. ib. Simon, 
N. T. p. 1. 18. Marsh's Michael. Pappelbaum. 

External. MSS. For the text. — It is supposed to be in 8 of 
Steph Vat. some seen by Simon, one mentioned bj Eras- 
mus, some bj Cajetan, some by Valla, some by the Louvaine 
divines ; it is in 2, the Dublin and Berlin MSS. — Against it. 



268 RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 

It is not in any of Steph. nor in the Vat. nor in any seen by 
Simon. Erasmus says not that he saw one, nor has any per- 
son found it. Cajetan was misinformed, and Valla is mis- 
represented. The Louvaine divines mean Latin copies. 
The Dublin M6. is very modern ; and the Berlin MS. has 
been carefully collated by Pappelbaum, and proved to be 
almost a mere transcript from the Complutensian. 

Versions. For it. Vulg. ; in all Edit, and most MSS. ; all 
modern versions ; supposed to be in Ital. and Armen. — 
Against it. Arab. Ethiop. Copt. Pers. Russ. Syr. in all 
MSS. and some Edit Armen. in all ancient copies. Vulg. 
in many MSS. and the most ancient; in others, differently 
placed ; in Jerome's and Ital. Luther, in some editions. 
Zuingl, Bullinger. Eng. edit, till after 1556. 

Quotations For it it. (Greek.) Dissertation placed in Atha- 
nas. Lateran Council, as from some Greek copies of the 
15th century. Calecas, 14th century. (Latin.) supposed in 
TertuU. and Cyprian, and Explan. i&dei ; it is in the Pre- 
face to the Catholic Epistles, Victor Vitens. Vigilius Tap- 
sens. Fulgentius; and is positively rejected by none. — 
Against it (Greek.) No Antenicene writer, nor Nicene 
Council ; no writer for above 700 years, though it might of- 
ten have been for their purpose. (Latin.) No writer for 
above 800 years. Tertull. and Cypr. are misunderstood. 
The Preface to the Catholic Epistles is spurious and late ; 
all the others are too late The text could not be positively 
rejected, because it was not known. 

Editions. For it. Compl. Erasm. 3d &c. Steph. Beza, 
and all the common ones derived from these. — Against it. 
Erasm 1st and 2. Alb. Haguenau. Strasburg. Colinseus, and 
several derived from these. Griesb. 

Internal. Connexion. For it. The connexion is imperfect, 
as there would be only witnesses on earth ; it is referred to, 
V. 9- " the witness of God ;" it is a proof of v. 5, 6. and 

properly beings with or<, v. 7. and not with »<»/, v. 8. 

Against it. The connexion requires it not ; three witnesses 
are sufficient, and the apostle says not that they are " on 



RULES CONCERNING VARIOUS READINGS. 269 

earth." V. 4, refers not to this, but to what follows, and 
the proof does begin with Iti, The connexion will not bear 
it ; it disjoins v. 6. and v. 8. improperly ; and the same wit- 
ness would be unfairly reckoned twice. 

Occasion. For it. The text has been omitted by the Arians 
or Gnostics, accidentally and easily ; it could not be added 
from a gloss, because there is no such gloss in any Greek 
IMS. — Against it. It was a mystical interpretation of v. 8. 
written on the margin of some Latin copies ; whence it was 
taken into the text, and translated into Greek ; it could not 
easily be oihitted accidentally, far less so, generally. 



270 SEPARATE WORDS. 



CHAP. 11. 



The Explication of Separate Words, 

809. The first and simplest object of explanatory 
or interpretative criticism^ is, separate words. 

810. The difficulties in these regard — the combina- 
tion of letters into words — irregular forms and flexions 
— the general signification of words — their different 
kinds, as nouns, verbs, particles — and the determina- 
tion of the kind to which they belong ; and these 
several classes of difficulties suggest a natural distri- 
bution of this branch of criticism. 



SECT. I. 

The Combination of Letters into Words. 

811. The proper combination of letters into the 
different words which they were designed to form, na- 
turally claims our first attention, both by its analogy 
to corrective criticism, and by its being fundamental 
to what is properly explanatory. 

812. All ancient MSS. being written without any 
distances between words, they cannot show in what 



COMBINATION OF LETTERS INTO WORDS. 271 

manner the author meant that the words should be 
distinguished ; and, in distinguishing them rightly, 
there is often difficulty ; and mistakes may be^ and 
have been committed. 

Ken. Diss. Gen. §28, 124. 

813. One word may be, and has sometimes been^ 
improperly divided into two. 

Psalm, cvi. 7. "They provoked CD*Sjr"at the sea;" this is 
superfluous. CD'hv, 

Ken. Diss. Gen. p. IS n. 

Mark vi. 25. " Give me (f | eeyrj??, literally, " out of her") 
"the head," &c. So most MSS. ; a^ec^ to be supplied. (Be- 
za) ; but this is an awkward phrase. — s^avviji " immediately," 
all Vers. 

Mill, in loc. 

814. Two words may be, and have been improper- 
ly united into one. 

Psal. Ixxiii. 4. "No bands (distresses) into their death,''^ tZJnin'?; 
this is obscure. — On ID*?, " happen to them ; perfect and 
firm is their strength." Merrick, addenda. 

815. Letters, which belong to the end of one word, 
have been separated from it, and joined to the begin- 
ning of the subsequent word. 

1 Chnm. ii. 18 "Caleb begat Azubah (ni^^n"- n«1 ntVN) wife 
and Jerioth;^^ this is absurd. The 70. Vulg and Eng. 
mistranslate — ni;;"i^ n^x iniy« " begat Jerioth of Azubah his 
wife " Sjr. Arab. 
Ken. Diss. 1. p. 482. 

816. Letters, which belong to the beginning of one 
word, have been added to the end of the preceding 
word. 



272 COMBINATION OF LETTERS INTO WORDS. 

Hos. vi. 5. nii< yD3tyDl, " And thy judgments the light goeth 
forth;" this gives no sense. — "ilJO ^D3tyDl, " And my judg- 
ment shall go forth as the light,-^ all ancient Vers, except 
vulg. 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. 517. 

817. When^ in later MSS. and in editions, words 
came to be written with distances between them, they 
were distinguished only according to the judgment of 
the transcribers and editors, who had no other means 
of direction than we still have ; and, therefore, their 
judgment has no authority, further than it appears to 
be well founded ; and, when they differ, the diiference 
ought to be impartially examined. 

Isa. liv. 9 *D O " For the waters." Masora. — 'DO " as the 
days/' in 2 MSfe. £ Edit. Chald. Syr. Vulg. 8ym. Theod. 
Ken. and Lowth in loc. 

818. Versions, quotations illustrated or applied, 
and commentaries, show how the authors of them dis- 
tinguished words ; and, where they differ, suggest dif- 
ferent modes of arrangement, w hich ought to be fair- 
ly examined ; but, as these authors wjere not infalli- 
ble, we have the same right to distinguish the words 
differently, and, generally, the same means of judg- 
ing, which they had. 

819. Whenever, therefore, a text can be explain- 
ed, or a difficulty removed, by altering the present, 
or the common distinction of the words, such alter- 
ation may be made without scruple. 

2 Sam. V. 2. ^^2flD nn"n, " thou wast he that leddest out ;" 
both the words are irregular. — K'^flDH iT-^n, Keri. H'TI in 
14 MSS. N^yiDH in 21 MSS. 
Ken. in loc, and Diss. 1. p. 24. 



COMBINATIONS OF LETTERS INTO WORDS. 21S 

820. In judging how letters ought to be combined 
into words, great regard is due to the nature of the 
language ; the words, formed by the combination, 
must always be such as belong to it ; and those, which 
are regular, should be preferred to such as would be 
unusually anomalous. 

Isa. ii. 11. "The lofty looks (pUir.) shall be humbled, and 
the haughtiness," &c. ntyi Saty (sing) r\^' 1^31^. 
Lowth in loc. 

821. Of different arrangements of letters into 
words, consistent with the nature of the language, 
that ought to be preferred which best suits the sense 
and connexion, though it be not so entirely regular 
or common as the others. 

822. But, generally, the nature of the language, 
and the sense of the place, concur in favouring the 
same combination of letters ; and, when they do, that 
combination is certainly right. 

823. When a particular combination, suitable to 
the language and the sense, is likewise countenanced 
by MSS. versions or quotations, this is a further con- 
firmation of its being right. 

Jer. XV. 18. n^nn rn, "Wilt thou be altogether?" this is ir- 
regular, and an abrupt transition to God. rrn nrn, " it is 
become," in 1 ancient MS. 70. Vulg. 

Ken. in loc. and Diss. 1. p. 512. Wall in loc. 
Jer. xxiii. 33. "Thou shalt say Nli'D HD nx what burden?" 
this is odd and incoherent.—- J^'i^on anj*, " Ye are the bur- 
den." ro. Vulg. 
Ken. ib. p. 518. 

35 



274 IRREGULAR FORMS. 

Jam. V. 12. " Lest ye fall" {m 67rox.pi<nv) literally ''into hypoc- 
risy.^* — So most MS^.—vTro KpiTiv, "under judgment," in 
Alex, and a few others, some Edit. Vulg. Syr. Arab. 
Eth op. 

Mill, in loc. and Prol. 1208. Griesb. in loc. 



SECT. II. 



Irregular Forms and Flexions of Words. 

824. In the Hebrew of the Old Testament there 
are many words which have some irregularity in their 
form. 

825. The Jews, and on their authority, or in imi- 
tation of them, many christians, suppose all these irre- 
gularities to have been intended by the inspired writer, 
and to contain some mysterious meaning ; but the 
supposition is groundless, and the mysteries inferred 
are imaginary and often ridiculous. 

826. These irregularities regard either the vowe} 
points, or the letters. 

827. Of those which regard the vowel points, some 
indicate false readings ; as, when a word is left wholly 
without points, because it was supposed not to be gen- 
uine, or has not its own points, but those of another 
which ought to be substituted in its place. 



IRREGULAR FORMS. 276 

, 828. Other irregularities in the vowel points^ only 
show the injudicioQsness of those who affixed them ; 
and, therefore, :io regard should be paid to them^ but 
the words considered and interpreted^ as if they had 
been regularly pointed. 
Glass. 1. 3. t. 3. can. 31. 

829. Of irregularities regarding the letters, many 
consist in the defect, the redundance, the transposi- 
tion, or the change of some of them ; and all such are 
false readings, owing to the blunders of transcribers^ 
though consecrated by the Masora ; and ought to be 
corrected. 

Isa. XXX. 5. IS^'X^n, N is superfluous, and not pointed. — 5J'^:2n in 
8 MSS. and is regular ; " thej were ashamed." 
Lowth and Ken. in loc. 
V. 28. a^U najnS, the first word is very irregular ; ' is want- 
ing, and n superfluous ; it should be Q'Un '^'^nS, " to sift 
the nations." 

Houbig. and Lowth in loc. 
Ezek. xiv. 1. J^n^l, irregular. — mT) ia 2 MSS. which is right: 
others vary. i^T) in 28 MSS. ; )^)y) in 2 MSS. 
Ken. in loc. and Diss, Gen. p. 83. n. 

830. Other irregularities respecting the letters seem 
to arise from a mixture of different persons, tenses 
and conjugations ; and it has been common to suppose, 
that such words unite the sense of both the forms which 
are mixed in them ; but the supposition is without 
foundation, the irregularity being only a false reading, 
which ought to be corrected. 

Glass, ib. 

Exod. XXV. 31. ntJ'rr*, an irregular compound of nE'>\n " thou 



276 IRREGULAR FORMS. 

shalt make," and r\^y\ " let be made." It is supposed to 
contain some mysterious meaning ; but it has none. The 
connexion shews the former reading to be right; and it is 
found in the Sam. and above 140 MSS. 

Ken, in !oc. and Diss. 1. p. 402. Diss. Gen. § 42, 52. 

Isa. Ixiii. 3. 'n'7J-Ui^, compounded of the future S«Ji^"I will 
stain,*' and the praeterite 'nh^i " I have stained." — but 
mS^a^ in 1 MSv which is regular, viz. the future with the 
affix pronoun, affected by the conversive 1 before^.," I have 
stained them." 

Glass, ib. Ken. and Lowth in loc. 

Jer. xxii. 23. ^fl^^V» a compound, with jod paragogical, of 
the preeterite j^^t^\ and participle jl^^l^' " ^^^ inhabit- 
edst, and still (lost inhabit;" but n2\^' in'Keri, and 11 MSS. 
and r\2\L)V in 1 MS. ; the former is best supported, but the 
points are wrong. — ^H^^pD a compound, with jod paragog. 
of the prseterite /l^^pj and participle n^JP/?* both in Pyh. 
" nestled and nestlethj" but njipD in Keri arid 9 MSS. and 
n:iilpD in 7 MSS. ; it is the participle wrong pointed ; " thou 
inhabitedst Lebanon, nestling in the cedars." — *njnj, but 
n:nj in Keri and 59 MSS., which is right. 
Ken. in loc. Glass, ib. 

831. There are, likewise, irregular words which 
seem to be compounded of different roots ; and which 
have, therefore, been supposed to imply the significa- 
tion of both ; but these, too, are only false readings, 
and ought to be corrected. 

Jer. ii. 11. '' Hath a nation changed ("i^n'nn) their gods," com- 
pounded of iiD "to change," and ID' "to boast;" but 
T'^nn in 65 MSS., which is regular from^^D. 

Ezek. xxxvi. 11. T,U"£2ni " And I will do good," compound- 
ed of :)V^ and 2D' ; but \"i:2D'm from the former, in 23 
MSS. 

Zech. X. 6. a^lUJ^'ini compounded of Ti^' "to sit,'^ which 



SIGNIFICATION OF WOUDS. 277 

would give CD^n^iyni, and miy " to return," which would 
give CD'nniym « I bring them again to place them," Eng. — 
but the former is regular in 25 iMSS. "I will set them." 
Glass, ib. Ken. in loc. 



SECT. III. 



The Signification of Words, 

832. The Scripture being written in dead languages, 
the words of which habit has not led us to associate 
with the things denoted by them, there must often be 
difficulty in discovering the signification of the several 
words employed. 

833. In discovering the signification of Hebrew 
words, there is peculiar difficulty ; because, that lan- 
guage having been almost wholly lost for several ages, 
and no book, except the Bible, being extant in it, the 
knowledge of it is but imperfectly recovered by means 
of the kindred languages, the ancient versions, atten- 
tion to etymology, and regard to the scope and con- 
nexion ; and, by means of all these, it cannot, perhaps, 
be completely recovered, in every instance. 

834. The Greek having been of more extensive 
and constant usage, it is easier to discover the mean- 
ing of words in the New Testament ; but even this is 
not always exempt from difficulty. 



278 SIGNIFICATION O^ WORDS. 

835. Difficulties respecting the signification of single 
words, are reducible to two; — Obscurity — and Am- 
biguity. 

836. 1. A word is obscure, when there is diffi- 
culty in affixing any meaning to it. Such obscurity 
proceeds from different causes, according to which the 
means of removing it are likewise different. 

837. Obscurity sometimes arises from a word being 
rare in the language, or at least in Scripture, especi- 
ally, when it occurs only in places where there is little 
in the sense and connexion that can indicate its precise 
meaning ; and, in this case, its signification must be 
collected, as well as possible, from its etymology, or 
from the usage of it, in the few instances in which it 
occurs, or from kindred languages. 

Isa. ix. 5. |«D p«D occur nowhere else; — "battle," Rabbin 
Eng. Sym. — " violenta prsedatio," Vulg. — e-T«;i;)v i-xio-vny' 
/ttevjjv, "robe gathered together," 70. The phrase is used for 
" shoes," by the Syriac, in Luke xv. 22. Acts xii. 8. It 
probably means " armour for the legs and feet ;" this was to 
be burnt with the " garments rolled in blood ;" which was 
a common custom, Josh. xi. 6. Psal. xlvi. 9. Ezek. xxxix. 9, 
10. Nah. ii. 13. 
Lowth in loc. 

Mat. vi. 11. A^io't rf-fi'v EniOYSlON ; the word occurs not in 
the New Testament, nor 70, nor in almost any Greek author; 
its etymology is therefore derived, — 1. from ztci and «t;<», 
" substance, essence, means of subsisting." whence " super- 
substantialem," Vulg. " substantialem," suitable to our sub- 
stance, Vatabl. Macknight. — " of our necessity," i^yr — 
" alimentarium," Castal. — 2 from ^jr/sio-tfc, " following," sub- 
auditur ;;iM.e^««, "to-morrow ;" whence "iHD, " of to-morrow," 
Heb. Gospel. Grot, synecdoch. for, " what is sufficient for 



SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS. 279 

the future part of life ;*' this is not inconsistent with v. 34. 
and is agreeable to Phil. iv. 6. — " quotidianum,' Ital. " daily," 
Eng. and most modern versions. 

Mark xiv. 3. A^ixSua-rpov ; the word is used only here, and in 
Mat. xxvi. 7. Luke vii. 37. " alabaster," Jer Zeger. Grot. 
Eng. Pliny. — or, from a priv. and Xoc/^^etva>, " which could 
not be held ;'* — either " smooth," Erasm. or " without han- 
dles," Knatchb. — c-wrpt-^otTu, " brake," Eng. ; this is the 
common sense of the word in the New Testament; but it 
signifies also " shook," in Greek writers, and perhaps in 
Luke ix. 39. which agrees better with this place. 
Knatchb. 

Phil. iii. 20. noXirevf^ce. occurs nowhere else in the New Tes- 
tament, but often in Greek writers, where it is always used 
with a reference to political society, particularly to confed- 
erated states, living under the same laws and polity, though 
in different places ; — " our polity," that to which we belong, 
Palairet. " our conversation," Eng. ; but this sense is not 
authorized ; our translators have been led to it by ^QXinvta 
being twice used for, "to behave." First, 

Act. xxiii, 1. TleTToXirevuxi, " I have lived," Eng. and most in- 
terpreters ; but it may refer to Paul's behaviour as a citizen ; 
for he was accused as an enemy, and seditious, ch. xxvi. 5. 
" I have lived as a good citizen." Again, 

Phil. i. 27. UoMr£vs(r6£, " let your conversation be," Eng. ; but 
the apostle had all along considered Christians as united in 
one society, and having a common cause and interest. " Act 
suitably to the Gospel, the bond and charter of your union ;" 
it is so explained by what follows. 
Eph. ii. 19. ^vf/.'ToXirui, a word of the same etymology; "fel- 
low-citizens," Eng. members of the same community. 

838. A word becomes obscure in a particular pas- 
sage, when none of the significations, which it has in 
other passages, there suits the sense ; and, in this case, 
another signification, more suitable, must be gathered 
from other writers, or from kindred languages. 



2B& SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS. 

839. A derivative word becomes obscure, whei 
the signification, v^hich it requires in a particular pas- 
sage, is such as cannot naturally arise from any of th( 
significations, of its root or primitive, which are foundl 
in the Scripture, or common in the language ; and the 
obscurity must be removed by learning other significa- 
tions of the root, from writers in the language, or 
from kindred languages. 
The noun '?'?n is derived from SSn, which, in the Hebrew 
Bible, signij&es " to be pierced through, wounded, slain ;" 
it is therefore rendered " wounded, slain," where this sense 
is improper. But, in Arabic, the root signifies " to encamp, 
protect," &c. and its derivatives have significations corres- 
ponding to these, " a brave man, warrior, soldier." Judg. 
XX. 31, 39. " smite O'SSn the s^aiw," Chald. which is absurd. 
— "the wounded," 70. little better, for there had been no 
battle. — the Vulg. makes an unwarrantable supplement.— 
Eng. " and kill," which is no version ; but if we render it 
" soldiers," all difiiculty is removed — Psal. Ixxxix. 10. 
" Thou hast broken Rahab SShd — " as one wounded," 70. 
Vulg. — " slain," Eng. both flat and improper — " thou like a 
soldier hast broken," &c. which agrees with the structure, and 
is confirmed by Exod. xv. 3, 6 — -Prov. vii. 26. " Cast down 
many a^bSn—having wounded," 70. Arab, which is no ver- 
sion.-— •" slain," Chald. 8yr.— " wounded," Vulg. Eng. ; but 
if we render it " warriors," it gives an unexceptionable sense, 
and agreeable to the structure. Jer. li. 4, " The slain shall 
fall" (i. e fall mortally, which is identical;) but, if it be 
rendered "soldiers," it gives a proper sense, and preserves 
a just connexion with the preceding verse. So also v. 47, 
49. — Ezek. xi. 6, 7. This word is thrice rendered " slain," 
in Eng. 70 ; but, if soldiers," it makes good sense, and 
perfectly suits the connexion. — ch. xxi. 14. " The sword of 
the slain, of the great men that are slain,''^ Eng.—" of the 
great slaughter," Chald. Vulg. ; it should be, "the sword 
of the warriors, of the great warrior," i. e. the king of Bab- 
ylon, v. 19. 



SIGNIFICA.TION OF WORDS. 281 

2 Sam. xxiii. 8. and 1 Chron. xi. 11. " lift up his spear against 
(Sam. 800, which is wrong) 300 Sbn— whom he slew," Eng. 
but this is almost incredible. If it be rendered « slain or 
wounded,'* this would have been no act of bravery ; but, if 
"soldiers," the meaning will be, that he cut his way through- 
Ken. Diss, 1. p. 103, &c. 

840. When the obscurity of a word arises from its 
implying an allusionto some particular object, custom, 
or event, it can be removed only by the knowledge of 
that which is alluded to. 

Mat. V. 41. xxvii. 32. Mark xv. 21. Ayyxpsve^, « compel," from 
the Persic ; it is taken from the law of forcing to go on the 
king's service to a certain stage or angara. 
Drus. Grot. Lightfoot. Lamy. 

841. 2. As, in all languages, there are words which 
liave several different significations, it must often be 
ambiguous which of these signifi<^ations ought to be 
affixed to them in a particular passage ; and for 
determining this, different means may be employed in 
different instances. 

842. Knowledge of all the significations of the word 
must be presupposed ; for a word is not always used 
in its most common sense ; and, that knowledge can 
be obtained only by an extensive acquaintance with 
the language, and the writers in it, and sometimes, also, 
with kindred languages. 

Luke xii. 29. M?? f^ersapi^ech, "be not lifted up on high," Vulg. 
Erasm. Zeger. This is its most common sense, agreeably 
to its etymology ; but, in this sense, it is difficult to con- 
nect it with the context. "Be not of doubtful mind," or, 
" in careful suspense," Eng. High things appear " suspend- 

36 



282 SIGNIFICATION OP WORDS. 

ed ;'* by a further metaphor, the vford signifies "to vibrate 
or fluctuate ;" and hence "to be anxious or in suspense." 
This sense the word has in Greek writers ; and this suits 
the connexion, antl is synonymous with f^iptin.viiin)Te, Mat. 
vi. 31. 

Grot. Vatabl. Castal. Knatchb. 

Mat. vi. 2, 5, 16. ATrsx^'^t rov f^t(r$ov. The word has the same 
sense in all these places. " They have their reward," Eng. 
Vail. Vatab. Castal. Grot. This is the sense of the word 
most frequent in the New Testament ; but it is frigid, harsh, 
and suits not V. 1. "ye have no reward" "They hinder 
their reward ;" the word is often used in this sense in the 
Greek writers. Dionys. Hal. Plutarc. in 70. Eccl. ii. 10. 
Prov. iii. £7. xxiii. 13. Joel. i. 13. This is analogous to uTre- 
Xof^oti, " to abstain," which is the sense it always has in the 
New Testament ; and it is suitable to its etymology and to 
the connexion. 
Knatchb. 

Luke xi. 24. Attsx^'ts Trec^ctK^^ija-iv ; it is commonly rendered, 
" ye have received (using the prseterite for the present) your 
consolation." Eng, Vatab. Grot. — rather, " ye hinder.^^ 
Knatchb. 

Mat. xi. 12. " From the days of John the Baptist, until now, 

the kingdom of heaven ^tut^eron^ icoti ^teitrrxt ci^7ra.^ii<rtv uvrtjv, 

sutfereth violence, and the violent take it by force," Eng. 
— Some, * The Jews rush into it so eagerly, as it they would 
seize it by force,' Munst. Erasm. Vatab. Camer. Grot. 
Lightf. ; but this is scarcely true, for it met with great oppo- 
sition from the Jews. — Others * The Gentiles seize it,' not 
by descent or inheritance, but extort it from the Jews as by 
conquest ; Hilar. Ambr. Maldonat. Zeger. but the Gentiles 
were not called during Christ's life. — Others, * is outraged,' 
violently opposed by the Jews, * and these violent opjjosers 
endeavour to storm,' or make a prey of it, Harwood. This 
is agreeable to the meaning of the words^ and of some of the 
Hebrew words, which the 70. translate by ^loct^eo ; it was the 
real fact, and it suits the connexion and argument. So, 



SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS. 283 

Luke xvi. 16. Up en ocvnjv ^{x^erui, « every man presseth into 
it,'' Eng. most interpreters ; but " outrages against it," vio- 
lently attacks and opposes it. lid. 

843. The same word is used both as a proper name, 
and as an appellative ; and, it may be uncertain whe- 
ther, in a particular passage, it is to be taken as the 
one or the other. 

Gen. ii. §. \iv, "pleasure," Vulg.— " Eden," 70. (though 
otherwise v. 15.) Eng. which is right ; it is a name else- 
where used, and is derived from the former. 

Ch iv. 16. nu, " A fugitive," Vulg.— "Nod," 70. Eng, so 
called from Cain's state ; perhaps " Arabia desert." 
Well's Geogr. V. 1. c. 1. § 39. 

Ch. xii. 6. Deut. xi. 30. nilD pSx, " the plain Moreh," Eng.— 
"the high oak," 70. there was such in Moreh, Gen. xxxv. 4. 
Josh. xxiv. 25. 26. Judg. ix. 6. 
Wells, ib. c. 7. § 4. 

Isa. V. 2. piK?, " Sorek," 70. Theod.— " chosen," Sym. Vulg. — 
" with the choicest vines," Eng. 

Ch. XV. 9. n)2D)}, " additions, more," Vulg, Eng. — " the Arabi- 
ans," 70. n*n.s, « a lion," Vulg. Eng.—" and Ariel," 70. nmx, 
"the land." Vulg. Eng.—" Adama," 70. 

Ezek. xxxviii. 2. iyx") K'lyJ, " the prince of the head^ or chief," 
Vulg. — " chief prince," Eng. " of Ros," 70. to intimate that 
the Ros, or Russians, were a colony of Meshech or Tubal. 
Wells, ib. c. 3. s. 2. §41. 

844. General terms are used, sometimes, in their 
whole extent, sometimes, in a restricted sense, to de- 
note only some of the particulars included under 
them ; and whether, in any text, they are to be taken 
in the one way or the other, may be determined by the 
sense as appearing from the scope, the words by 
which they are explained^ or those to which they are 
opposed. 



284 SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS. 

pnv, StKctio^, signify in general, "virtuous, a person of univer- 
sal rectitude." They are determined to this sense — By 
vv^ords explaining them. Gen. vi. 9. " Noah was jus^," for 
it follows, "perfect, and walked with God." Psal. xxxii. 11. 
"Ye righteous," explained by, "upright in heart." Psal. 
xxxiii. 1. Ixiv. 10. xcvii. 11. cxl. 13. Prov. ix. 9. Ch. 
xxiii, 24. Mat. v. 45. "just and unjust," explained by 
" good and evil." Luke i. 6. " both righteous," for it fol- 
lows, " walking in all commandments and ordinances, blame- 
less." Acts X. 22. " Cornelius just," " feared God, was of 
good report." — ^j what is affirmed concerning them. Job 
xxxvi. 7. " God withdraweth not his eyes from the right- 
eous,^'^ " doth establish them, they are exalted." Psal. v. 12. 
" wilt bless the righteous "^"^ Psal Iviii. 11. "a reward for 
the righteous.''^ Mat. xiii. 43. " the righteous shall shine 
forth ;" these blessings belong not to a single virtue. Luke 
xiv. 14. " the resurrection of the jMsf." Ch. xviii. 9. "trusted 
in themselves that they were righteous." — By bein^" opposed 
to terms expressive of wickedness in general. Job xxii. 18, 
19. " counsel of the wicked, the righteous see." Ch. xxvii. 
13 — 17. "the portion of a wicked man, i\iQ just shall put it 
on." Psal. i. 5, 6. " ungodly nor sinners, the righteous." 
Prov. X. 3. " the soul of the righteous, the substance of tlie 
wicked." Mat. xiii> 49. jrovjj^ot;?, hicetim. Ch. xxiii, 28. 

hxectoty f^sTToi uTTOKpta-sai koci etvofJLtotq, Luke i. 17. urvsiGs^^ 
^povijirsi SiKctiav. 1 Pet. iv. 18. i'tfceciogy e6C£CjJ5 kcci af^tx^rafXoi, 

In this general sense, the words are applied to laws, or to con- 
duct. "Righteous judgments," &c a very common expres- 
sion. Luke xii. 57. " Why jud^e ye not what is {Sikuiov) 
right." Acts iv. 19. " whether it be (^/x«c/oy) ri^ht," &c. 
By an intension of this sense, they denote " eminently vir- 
tuous." Mark vi. 20. of John. — and " perfectly virtuous." 
Rom. iii. 10. "none righteous." Christ o SiKxici, Acts iii. 
14. vii. 52. xxii. 14. 1 Pet. iii. 18. 1 John ii. 1. But the 
words are often taken in more restricted significations, indi- 
cated by the same means; and these are various. 1. Inno- 
cence, or guiltlessness, in respect of any particular vi^e. Gen. 
XX. 4. "a righteous nation," guiltless in respect of Sarah* 



SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS. 285 

David often of himself, as to the crimes imputed to him. 2. 
Duty to iren. Luke ii. 25. "Simeon just and devout." 
S. " Strict justice." Exod. ix. 27. " The Lord righteous," 
in the judgment of hail. Ch. xxiii. 8. "gift perverteth," 
&c. 2 Chron. xii. 6. " The Lord righteous," in punishing. 
Tit. i. 8. "just," enumerated among many other virtues. This 
sense is frequent, and applied to laws or conduct. Mat. xx. 
4, 7. " what is ri^ht I will give " John v. 30. "my judg- 
ment just." 4 Kind, benign, beneficent, merciful. Ezra 
ix. 15. ** Lord righteous," for we remain, &c. Psal. cxii. 
4. "righteous," synonymous with "gracious," &c and ex- 
plained by " showeth favour," &c. v. 6, it has the same 
sense Psal. cxvi. 5. "righteous" synonymous with "gra- 
cious, merciful." Prov. xii. 10 " righteous regardeth beast," 
and opposed to "cruelty." Mat. i. 19. "Joseph just," for 
" not willing," &c. Grot. Knatchb. Rom. iii. 26. "Jwsf and 
the justifier," &c. Some, * Christ rendered it consistent with 
justice to justify;' some, 'just in keeping his promise,' 
Locke; but simpler, "merciful," as v. 24. "justified by 
grace," Taylor. 1 John i. 9. "just to forgive." The words 
should be rendered uniformly, when the same sense is clear, 
and differently from the others. The meaning remains 
somewhat doubtful, when different principles favour differ- 
ent senses, or, when there is no certain principle. Rom. v. 
7. "for a righteous man," * virtuous,' for it is opposed to 
"ungodly," v 6. and to " sinners," v. 8, — or, * strictly just,' 
for it is immediately opposed to "good ;" this last is pref- 
erable. Prov. xxix. 7. " The righteous considereth the cause 
of the poor," ' virtuous,' for it is opposed to " wicked ;" or, 
* merciful,' if respecting common life ; or, * just,' if relating 
to judicial proceedings. Mat. ix. 13. Mark ii. 17. Luke v. 
32. *' not to call the righteous ;" it is commonly understood 
of* self-righteous ;' but in this sense, the word is never used, 
nor could it be opposed to " sinners ;" it means * truly or 
eminently virtuous,' opposed to " gross sinners ;' he speaks 
comparatively, [157.] and of a total change of life. 



286 SIGNIFICATION OP WORDS. 

845. Many words, being common and indefinite, 
equally applicable to many different subjects or events, 
they ought not to be explained in the same way in all 
the places where they occur, but varied and restrict- 
ed, according to the sense, the connexion, or parallel 
texts. 

" The coming of Christ," is used in very different senses, which 
it is of importance to distinguish. — * His birth, or coming in 
the body,' John-xvi. 28, " came from the Father, into the 
world." 1 John iv. 2, S. 2 John 7. — * Executing his un- 
dertaking,' John xviii. 37. " came into the world," distin- 
guished from * was born." Mat. xviii. 11. xx. 28. Mark 
X. 45. Luke xvii. 20. xix. 10. John i, 9, 11. iii. 2. iv. 25. 
vii. 27, 28, 31, 41, 42. x. 10. Eph. ii. 17. 1 Tim. i. 15 — 
Hence, particularly, *his entering on his ministry.' So, 
« came after John," Mai iii. 11. Mark i. 7. Luke iii. 16. 
John i. 15, 27, 30. Also, Mat. xi. 19. '* Son of man came," 
&c. John V. 43. "come in my Father's name." Ch. ix. 39. 
« For judgment am I come." — * Any great, though invisible 
interposition,' Rev. ii. 5. " come and remove candlestick." 
V. 16. " come and fight." Ch. iii. 3. '' come quickly." — 
Specially, * the eifusion of the Holy spirit,' John xiv. 18, 28. 
" come unto you." — And * the propagation of his religion,' 
Mat xvi. 28. "coming in his kingdom," for Mark ix. 1. 
" kingdom come with power." * The destruction of Jeru- 
salem,' Mat. xxvi. 64. coming in the clouds," &c. prophetic 
style, for judgment — Visible appearance for general judg- 
ment,' Mat. xvi. 27. " shall come in glory," for it is added, 
'* reward every man," &c. this sense is frequent. It is 
sometimes difficult to determine between these senses. 
Mat. X. 23. " till the Son of Man be come." — * till his resur- 
rection,' Munster. Lightf. ; but the phrase never has this 
sense. — 'Till he followed them preaching.' Vatab— *Till he 
come to destroy Jerusalem,' Zeger. Knatchb. — * Till giving 
of the Holy Ghost,' Grot — * Till the gospel be received,* 
Macknight. It is doubtful in what sense it should be taken 
in this place. 



SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS. 287 

846. As the same word is, sometimes, taken in a 
good, a bad, or indifferent meaning, it is by the sense 
and connexion that it mast be determined, in which 
of these ways it should be understood, in a particular 
text. 

Acts xvii. 22. Asurtdonf^ovec-Ttpovq, ^' too superstitious." Eng* 
Erasm. and alii.— But, " more religious ;" this is a common 
sense of the word : the Athenians were fond of this charac- 
ter ; it suits the apostle's design, and gives occasion for his 
doctrine ; he shows great address, commends where he can, 
yet softly hints a rebuke. Grot. Benson. Lardner. — Acts 
XXV. 19. "of their own (Je<5-/^<96/^ov<fls§) superstition," Eng. — 
" Religion :" this sense suits the connexion : the word is 
used by Josephus in speaking of the Jewish religion ; it is 
here used of Agrippa's religion, and Festus was desirous of 
showing him respect. Benson. 

847. The same word may be used, either in its pro- 
per and literal, or in a figurative and translatitious 
sense ; in most cases, it is not difficult to determine, 
particularly by the nature of the thing, or by the con- 
nexion, in which way it should be understood ; but, in 
some cases, it is doubtful ; and yet, the determination 
will considerably affect the sense. 

There are many texts which ascribe bodily parts to God ; but, 
the nature of the thing, and other texts, show that the terms 
are used metaphorically. 

Gen. iii. 1, &c. " Serpent," is generally understood literally; 
others, however, think, that it should be taken wholly met- 
taphorically. Chandler's Sermons. Gerard, vol. 1. serm. 
4, 5. 

" Holy Ghost," often signifies ' the divine Spirit,' John xiv. 
16, 26. XV. 26. xvi. 23. Mat. xxviii. 19. 2 Cor. xiii. 4.— 
often, * his operation, or the effect of it ;' Acts ii. 4, 33. viii. 



288 SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS. 

15— 19. X. 44 — Acts xix. 1, 2. « We have not heard wheth- 
er there be anj Holy Ghost," any giving of miraculous pow- 
ers, V. 6. 

848. In the New Testament, a word's being under- 
stood according to the usage of Greek, or that of Hel- 
lenistical, writers, will considerably affect the sense ; 
and the determination may be attended with some am- 
biguity ; which, however, may generally be removed, 
at least with sufficient probability. [161. 162. 164. 
165.] 

849. Many words have several distinct significations, 
not reducible to any of these heads, one of which they 
bear in some texts, and another in others ; and, which 
of them they bear in each, must be ascertained by the 
connexion, the construction, the usage of Scripture^ 
and similar passages. 

Uceti primarily signifies *a child,' absolutely. Mat. ii. 16. 
csve/Ae t«5 TrcciSeig, "the children." Luke ii. 43. I^jcfer? i rrun, 
" the child Jesus." Mat. xvil 18. Luke viii. 51, 54. ix. 
42. — by the extension beyond the age of childhood, * a young 
person.' Acts xx. 12. -Tvcciloi., of Eutychus, for veeeiKas, y, 9 — 
or even perhaps, * persons of any age,' Mat. xxi, 1 5. royj 
'TTutS'eti, the disciples. — Relatively to a master, a * servant.' 
Mat. xiv. 2. Herod said to/$ Treacriv avrov ** to his servants." 
Luke vii. 7. Traii f^ov, " my servant," for SovXoi v. 2, 8, 10. 
Luke xii. 45. xv. 26. So, probably, Luke i. 54. of Israel^ 
where there is an allusion to Isa. xli. 8, 9, and Acts iv. 25. 
The word is also supposed to signify, relatively to parent, 
* a son.* John iv. 51. Troci^ g-ov ^«i, " thy son liveth ;" but 
w<05 is found in many MSS.— It is used relatively, or with a 
a genitive, five times concerning Christ. Mat. xii. 18. l^ov a 
?ra<5 |ttoy, « behold my servant," Eng. which is right; for it is 
a quotation from Isa. xlii. 1, where the word is 12;; Acts 
iii. 13. tSo^ctTs rev •Kot.i^oc uvTcv, "son," Eng. Grot. The 



SIGNIFICATIONS OF WORDS. 289 

apostle is supposed to allude to the testimony at his baptism ; 
but, there seems no reason for the supposition ; the allusion 
is rather to his resurrection and giving miraculous powers, 
V. 15, 16. ; it may, therefore, mean " servant/' v. 26. ctvuTrvi- 
cxi rov TTutSx xvrov, " his son,' Eng. but rather "servant:" 
it alludes to Moses, who is often called " servant," never 
"son.'' Acts iv. 27. ctti rov uytov -TTXi^cc trov, " thy holy 
child ;" Eno-. called " Son," Psal. ii. part of which is quoted, 
V. 25, 26. ; but it is used of David in the sense of " servant,'* 
V. 25. and here, in the same sense, in allusion to him as a 
type of Christ. v. 30. Six rov ovo/A^xrog rov uyiov TrxiSoq, 
" child," Eng but from the connexion, v. 27. it should be 

♦v" servant." "Son" suits Christ's dignity. Vail. Erasm. 
But, I. " Servant ' is not derogatory to him ; he is often so 
called. 2. This is the constant signification of the word in 
the New Testament, when used relatively. 3. In every 
other place, w<«$ is used of Christ as ."^on. These reasons 
preponderate. 

Mat. vi. 27. j^A<»/« " suture." " Which of you can add one 
cubit to his sfaiwre .^" Eng. cubit belongs to space. But 
,jA/>c/<e equally signifies * age;^ it is so rendered John ix. 21, 
23. Heb. xi. 1. Measures of space are often applied to time ; 
"a span," or handbreadth, Psal, xxxix. 5 ; s) may 5r'/5;^y5, 
* cubit ;' and this sense suits the connexion, v. 25. forbids 
anxiety for life; to speak here of prolonging it, is, there- 
fore, suitable ; but adding to one's stature is not ; and adult 
persons could not think of it; a cubit would not be "least," 
Luke xii. 26. where it is preceded by the parable of the rich 
man. " Who can add length to his age ?" or, " prolong his 
life one hour ?" 

Heylin. Theol. Lect. Campb. in loc. 

850. Diiferent significations of the same word are 
sometimes very remote, and, in appearance, totally 
unconnected ; but, the most remote are generally unit- 
ed, by means of the several intermediate significations ; 
and by, tracing these, a word may be properly inter- 
37 



290 

preted in texts, where its primary signification, or any 
of its most common significations , would be totally 
unsuitable. 

Psal xlix. 4. h^ifoh " to a parahle,^^ "nTH " a dark saying ;" 
neither, however, applicable to the subject. Parables were 
originally used for familiar illustration; afterwards, for con- 
cealing the meaning ; and thus proceeded to enigma or riddle. 
The interpretation of such was reckoned great wisdom, 
Judg. xiv. 12, &c. Prov. i. 5, 6. Hence * wise sayings' 
came to signify any important instruction. Such is here 
given, and called " wisdom, understanding." v. 3. 

851. Similar words have sometimes totally different 
significations, which may very readily be, and often 
are, confounded ; but must be carefully distinguished, 
else the sense will be perverted, or obscured. 



SECT. IV. 



The Usage of Nouns, 

852. The peculiar usage of nouns regards their 
several accidents, gender, case, number ; or their va- 
rieties, as substantives or adjectives, abstract or con- 
crete ; and the difficulties attending it arise from ir- 
regularities in relation to any of these. 

Macknight on Epistles, Essay 4. 

853. The Hebrew language having no neuter gen- 
der, either in nouns or pronouns, sometimes the mas- 
culine, but generally the feminine, is used in place of 



NOUNS. 



291 



it; and this usage being sometimes adopted in the 
Greek of the New Testament, it is to be decided by 
the sense, and is generally to be admitted, when there 
is not a concord with an antecedent of the same 
gender. 

Glass. 1.3. t. 1, c. 19. 

Gen. i. 31. ii. 18. Psal. cxix. 65. 31D masc for neut. "good." 
Gen. 1. 20. n^lD fern, for "good." neut. n^ri fem. for " evil," 
neut Isa. v. 20. Eccl. ix. 9. Job. v. 9. Gen. xv. 6. and 
often elsewhere. Psal. cxviii. 23. «'n fem. Mat. xxi. 42. 
Mark xii. 11. «yrjj, not referring to j3«, " stone," nJ3, ymiet^, 
"corner," or jcb^caXi^, "head," (Orig. Chrysost. Theophyl. 
Erasm.) but to the whole sentence. Bez. Casaub. John xvii. 
3. uvTij for TUTo, " this is life eternal," viz. " to know thee," 
&c. 

854. The writers of the New Testament sometimes 
use the neuter for expressing a person ; but this ought 
not to be supposed, except when the sense, or some 
other clear principle, requires it. 

Mat. i. 20. T* yevvijhv Luke i. 35. yevvi^f^cvov, " that which is 
born," viz. "Jesus." Mat. xii. 41,42. ttMiov, * a greater 
person," Christ. Ch. xviii. 11. «:roA<w>ia5, "that which was 
(those which were) lost." John iii. 6. vi. 39. 1 Cor. i. 2r, 
28. Heb. vii. 7. 1 John v. 4. 1 John i. 1, 3. *0 jjv, "that 
which," the Aoyes, parallel to John i. 1, 14. 

855. As a word has sometimes the very same form 
in different genders, it leaves an ambiguity in which 
gender it ought to be taken, and that considerably af- 
fecting the sense ; but it may generally be determined 
by the connexion, parallel texts, or other means, 
though not always with absolute certainty- 
Luke vi. 35. " Lend MHAEN «TeAx/ J«vrf5," neut. " hoping for 



292 NOUNS. 

nothing again," Eng. Bez. W >lf. Casaub. Grot. Hachspan. 
opposed to " sinners hoping for as much," v. 34. But if so, 
tlie manner of expression would have been retained, and 
uTfeXTri^oj never means " to hope again,'' but " to despair ;" 
therefore, taking f^Tj^sv adverbially, •* not at all despairing," 
Macknight. Campb. But f^^hv may be masc. "causing 720 
man to despair,* (the verb having the force of Hiphil, as 70, 
Isa. xxix. 19. and Ecclus. xxvii. 21.) Syr. Arab. Pers. This 
sense suits Mat. v. 42. and seems preferable. Jun. De Dieu. 
Fessel. Hamm Knatchb. Cleric. 
1 Cor. ii. 6. " We speak wisdom ev ro/5 reXeioi^, (masc.) among 
them that are perfect." Eng, * Christians' in general, Vatab. 
Casaub. Grot, and others — or * initiated, far advanced,' and 
" wisdom" means sublimer points. Macknight. But there 
is no open and secret doctrine in Christianity ; the whole 
gospel is here evidently meant. — Or neut. " concerning per- 
fect things," Arab, which supposes not the Corinthians to be 
perfect, and suits the connexion ; for the apostle all along 
speaks of things taught, not persons to whom he spoke, v. 7, 
9, 10, 13. This last is the simplest, and the preferable ex- 
plication. Knatchb. 

856. The Hebrew nouns having no cases by flexion^ 
its usage, in relation to them, resolves itself into that 
of prepositions : and^ in the New Testament, the cases 
are employed in the same manner as bj Greek writers^ 
even when they seem to be used promiscuously, as the 
nominative for the vocative. 

Glass, ib. c 29. 

Mat. i. 20. xxvii. £9. Mark x. 47. Luke viii. 54. xii. 32. 
xviii. 13. Rom. viii. 15. Gal. iv. 6. Eph. vi. 1, 

857. When the cases of nouns are not distinguished 
by their form ; the sense, the usage of Scripture, or of 
the language, must determine in which of them it 
should be taken. 



NOUNS. 29o 

Acts vii. 59. Kvpte l^o-a, not " Lord of Jesus," Fran. David. 
- but " Lord Jesus,'* and always so elsewhere. 
Glass, ib. c. 4. 

858. The numbers of nouns are not used always 
with perfect regularity^ either in the New Testament, 
or in the Old. 

859. A singular noun does not always signify an in- 
dividual, but sometimes a multitude of related indivi- 
duals; or even a species. 

Glass, ib. c. 22. 

Gen. iii. 8. " Kid themselves amongst (]'j; literally, ' tree') 

the trees." 
Ch. xlix. 6. " Slew iy\x a man, houghed ^V^ an ox" — " men, 

oxen.'^ Ch. xxxiv. 25, &c. 
Exod. xxiii. 28. " 1 will send (n;;iKn * the hornet') hornet* 

before thee." 
Lev. xi 2. Num. xxi. 7. xxxi. 35. Deut xx. 19. 2 Sam. xix. 

21. Psal. xxxiv. 7. Prov. xvii. 22. xxx. 17, 18. Isa. xv. 9. 

Hos. V. 6. Jon. ii. 4. 
Rev. xxi. 21. ^ 7r?iccT£«)c (the street) " the streets," v. 16. 

860. In the New Testament^ the dual number is 
never used ; in the Hebrew, it is distinguished from the 
plural only by the vowel points ; but, if the authority 
of these be admitted, it is often used irregularly, there 
being singulars with a dual termination,^ and duals 
with plural significations,^ particularly in numerals.^ 

Glass, ib. c. 23. Schult. Gram. Heb. reg. 71. 

* CD '5' water £3 pj^, heaven. C^^^nHj^T' mid-day. 

2 Lev. xi. 23. 0^^^*^ "feet," dual, joined with " four." 

1 Sam ii. 13. QO^^T? "teeth,'" dual, joined with "three." 
Ezek i. 6. Q ^^3 " wings, ' dual, with "four.'* Zech. iii. 
9. ^iy<y "eyes," dual with "seven." 



294 NOUNS. 

3 2 Sam. xii. 6. CD^'^;;3•l^J "fourfold." Prov. \i 51. 
tD^iiy^P ** sevenfold'' — not " twice four, twice seven." 
Pagn. 

861. Plural nouns are sometimes intended to signify, 
Hot many, but one among many ; in which usage, some 
suppose an ellipsis of the numeral for one. 

Glass, ib. c. £7. Macknight, Ess. 4. 

Gen. viii. 4. " Rested on 'in the mountains," &c. on one of 
them. Ch. xix. 29. " The cities in which (one of which) 
Lot dwelt." Judg. xii. T. "was buried in (one of ) the 
cities of Gilead." Neh. iii. 8. vi. 2. Zech ix. 9. Mat. 
xxiv. 1. ct i^ci$)}Titt " his disciples" — 1/« one of them, Mark 
xiii. 1. Ch. xxvi. 8. " his disciples,'' one, Judas, John xii. 
4. Ch. xxvii. 44. oi Mo-tui, " the thieves ;" not both at first, 
Jerom. — but " one of them," Luke xxiii. 39. Luke xxiii. 

36. *• The soldiers." John xix. 29. " they"— but " one of 

them," Mat. xxvii. 48. Mark i. 2. John vi. 45. Acts xiii. 

40. " The prophets." some, or one of them. Mat. xxvi. 35. 

Mark v. 30. (see v. 27) John xiii. 4. If^^oinu, " garments" 

—one of them, the upper. 

862. Plural nouns are sometimes used in place of, 
or promiscuously with, their singulars, even when no 
peculiar emphasis is intended ; though, in some cases, 
the usage is, perhaps, designed to give emphasis, or to 
express dignity, particularly in names of authority, 
dominion, or office. 

Glass, ib. c. 24, 25, 26. Macknight, ib. 

Gen. xix. 11." They smote the men oniiD!! with blindnesses;" 
simply, * blindness,' or, * total blindness,' or, * each with 
blindness.' So 2 Kings vi. 18. 
Psal. xiii. 5, 11. xliii. 5. n)pw "th^ healths"— ' health of 

every kind ;' rather, simply ' health.' 
^rov. i. 20. niDDH " wisdoms"— * the excellent wisdom,' or 



NOUN'S. 295 

simply * wisdom ;' the word is singular in other texts. So 
ch. ix. 1. Eccl. V. 7. Isa. Iviii. 2. Lam. iii. 22. Ezek. 
xxviii 10. Nah. ii. 6. 

Mat. viii. 11. Luke xiii. 29. umroXui Kut Svo-fiu!, "east and 
west." feo Mat. ii. 1. xxiv. 27. Rev. xvi. 12. and else- 
where; no subtlety is meant. 

Mark xii. 25. apxvon ; but Mat. xxii. SO. ov^uv&i; they are used 
promiscuously, without any emphasis being intended by the 
former ; therefore, the power given to Peter, Mat. xvi. 19. 
ev Toii apecvoii, and to the apostles, ch. xviii. 18. tv Ta> apxva), is 
the same ; not, to him in all the heavens, to them only in 
one, according to Origen and the Popish writers, feo in 
other texts. Mat. xxvi. 64. and often elsewhere, ^e^tee, plu- 
ral, for " the right hand ;" perhaps f^ept} is to be supplied j 
in other texts it is singular, as Heb. viii. 1. xii. 2. 

Mat. xii, 1. Toii a-eiQ^ccTtf « sabbaths" — * sabbath,* v. 2. or ' one- 
of them.' So ijjtte^a rm crxQl^eirm, Luke iv. 16. Acts xiii. 
14. xvi. 13 70. Lev. xxiii. 32. 

Heb.ix. 2, 12. ra. uyiu, *' the sanctuary." v. 3. uyicc kyim^ « the 
most holy place. ' 

Heb. i. 2. 'o< a/^yves, and elsewhere. Some, " the world ;" others, 
" the ages." 

Gen xxiv. 9. " Abraham rji« his masters," a simple usage, or 
for dignity. 

Ch. xl. 1. an'JlN "their lords"— the King. 

Ch. xiii. 50. " The man ':"!« the lords" — Joseph. So Exod. 
xxi. 4, 6, 8, 29. 1 Kings xvi. 24. Isa. i. 3. 

O^nSx plural, for *the one true God.' Some, to intimate a 
plurality of persons ; but rather, a simple usage. Calvin in 
Gen. i. I. 

863. The Hebrew language having few adjectives^ 
substantive nouns are sometimes^sed to supply their 
place ; and the abstract thus put for the concrete ; 
though sometimes for the sake of emphasis, yet oftener 
from mere necessity ;» without any such design ; and 



^96 NOUNS. 

from i^, this usage is often adopted in the language of 
the New Testament. 

Glass. 1. 3. t. 1. c. 7. Macknight, Ess. 4. 
Gen. iii. 6. " The tree was nnsn a desire,^* (or pleasure) * desir- 
able, pleasant,' or, perhaps, * very desirable/ 

Gen. xii 2. " Thou shalt be r\Di2 a blessing,'' * blessed,* or 
*very blessed.' 

Gen. xlvl 34. " Every shepherd is n:D;?in an abomination to 

the Egyptians" — simply * abominable.' 
Hag. ii. 7. '* And mDH the desire of all nations shall come," 

* desired.' 

Psal. V. 9. XXXV. 6. xxxi;?. 5. Ezek. xxxv. 15. Dan. ix. 23. 
John xvii. 17. "Thy word is ct^inhix truth" — *true.' Eph. 
V. 8. Rom. ii. 26. iii. 30. Phil. iii. 2. 

864. On the other hand, concrete nouns, whether 
adjectives or substantives, are sometimes put for the 
abstracts, and must be interpreted as if they were 
such ; but, there are instances in which it may be doubt- 
ful whether this is the case or not. 

Glass, ib. c. 2. JVlacknight, ib. 

Gen. xxi. 16. "Hagar sat down a good way off 'iriDDD, as it 
were shooters of a bow'' — 'a bow shot.' 

Dan. ix. 24. " To seal up the vision «^nJl, and the prophet*^ — 

* prophecy,' for nJ<'3:i, vvhich is found in one MS. Rom. ii. 
4. Ta ptjf jjcrov for sy ;t;p5-TeTjj5, " the goodness of God leadeth 
to repentance." 

1 Cor. i. 25. To f4.e^^ov for ^ i^captet (which is the word, v. 18.) 
"the foolishness of God" — ro eca-esveg for ^ atrhvetu, "the 
weakness of God." 

2 Cor. viii. 8 " To pypve ro yvijTtev the sincerity of your love." 
Phil iv. 5. "Let ro sTrieiKSi for r^ eTirteiKetec, your moderation be 

known." \ 



NOUNS. 297 

865. Adjectives, or epithets, sometimes serve for 
distinguishing that to which they are applied, from 
other things ; and, sometimes, only for describing that 
thing itself ; and care must be taken tOj understand 
them accordingly. 

"The true God/' not *who has the attribute of truth,' but 
* who alone is truly God,' distinguished from those * who are 
called gods ;' it is determined to this sense, either by what 
is joined with it, or by being opposed to these. 

1 Pet. iv. 3. " Walked in udefA^trot? etSeoMXarpsieti^ unlawful 
idolatries," not distinguished from any * lawful' idolatries, 
according to Popish writers, but describes all idolatry as 
unlawful ; it is determined to this sense by the nature of 
the thing, and other texts. 

866. Epithets do not always imply that the qualities, 
or characters which are the foundation of them, do 
presently belong to the subjects to which they are ap- 
plied ; but are applied, sometimes, because they form- 
merly belonged,^ and, sometimes, because they were 
afterwards to belong, to them ;* but this is not to be 
supposed rashly.^ 

- Glass, ib. c. 3. 

* Gen. ii. 23. " This is bone of my bones," &c was so, being 

made from his rib, v. 21, 22. 

2 Sam. xxiv. 23. « These things did Araunah ^SD^ (Eng. " as a 
king," wrong) the king give ;" king of the Jebilsites, proba- 
bly, before David reduced them. 

Exod. vii. 12. "Aaron's rod swallowed up their rods i^* they 
had been, and were to be such, though at present serpents, 

Isa. xi. 6. " The zc?o// shall dwell with the lamb," &c figurative 
expressions for persons fierce like these ; they formerly were 
so, but now totally changed, so as to dwell, &c. This gives 
beauty and force to the description." 
38 



298 VERBS. 

Mat. xi. 5. *" The blind see, the lame walk," &c. They who 

were blind, lame, &c. So John ix. 17. " the blind man," 

* that had been blind.' — or, * receive sight, the power of 

walking,' &c. 
So, Mat. X. 3. xxvi. 6. xxi. 31. Rom. iv. 5. 1 Cor. xv. 5. 

Heb. xi. 31. 
* Gen. xxix. 21. Deiit. xxii. 24. Mat. i. 20. " Wife," a 

woman betrothed. 
John X. 16. « Other sheep I have." Ch. xi. 52. « Children of 

God," not then, but were to be. 
Eph, V. 27. " The church glorious," &c. not now, but shall be 

in heaven. 
3 Mat. xxvi. 26. 1 Cor. x. 16. xi. 26, 27, 28. « Bread," not 

because such only before blessing, according to Popish 

writers ; for it still remains bread. 



SECT. V. 



The Usage of Verbs. 

867. The usage of verbs respects their general sig- 
nification — and their several accidents, mode — tense — 
person — number — voice ; in all which there are pecu- 
liarities productive of difficulty. 

868. The genius of the Hebrew language occasions 
many peculiarities in the signification of its verbs ; 
[151. 156. 157. 158.] which must be attended to in 
explaining them ; and these are, likewise, carried into 
the Greek of the New Testament. 



VERBS. 299 

869. The Hebrew language having no compound 
verbsj simple verbs, both in it and the Greek of the 
New Testament, have often the signification of what 
would, in other languages, be their compounds with 
different prepositions ; but, as this is not always the 
case, it may, sometimes, produce an ambiguity, which 
is to be determined by the sense, or by parallel pas- 
sages. 

Glass. I. 3. t. 3. c. 1. 

id;? simply * to stand ;' but Dan. xi. 3, 4. * to stand against, 
resist.' " A mighty king (Alexander) shall (stand up, Eng.) 
resist ; and when he shall (stand up, Eng.) have resisted, his 
kingdom shall be broken." The connexion, v. 2. shows this 
to be the sense. 

hii} * to fall' — but also * to fall away' or desert. Jer. xxxvii. 13. 
"Thou fallest (away) to the Chaldeans."— * to fall otf, fail.' 
Josh. xxi. 45, 1 Kings viii. 56. " There hath not failed," 
become void. 

John X. 16. " rhem also I must ftriw^^*," etyctysiv, for (rvvxyaysiv 

* gather together,' ch. xi. 52. or Tr^oTuyxyeiv, ' to bring to' the 

fold. 
John xiv. 31. Ayaf^iv, for vTretyMi^ev, « let US withdraw," retire. 

V. 18, 28. Epx,oiA.ctiy " I come," for otvs^x^f^^t " I return" — 

enallage for MeXsvo-cf^ut "I will return." 

870. In the Hebrew, and, from its usage, in the 
Greek of the New Testament, a verb, besides the ac- 
tion strictly denoted by it, implies, likewise, another 
related action ; so that the idiom of other languages 
requires the supplying of another verb for expressing 
its full force, or its real meaning. 

Glass, ib. c. 2. 

npS " to take," but often, " to take and bring," or, having 
taken to bring." Gen. xv. 9, 10. Exod. xviii. 2. xxvii* 



300 VERBS. 

20. Num. xix. 2. — Mat. iv. 5, 8. 7rupetXecu.Qxni, « took,'* i. e. 
' having taken carried.' So ch. xxvii. 27. Gen. xliii. 34. 
Niy^l '* And he took (and sent, Eng.) messes unto them." 

V. 33. iny^ S« IP^K a^t!/:xn innn^i, « the men marvelled one at 
another," Eng. but this is not the sense ; they all marvelled 
at Joseph's behaviour. Literally, " marvelled one to anoth- 
er," but not English — " marvelling they looked," or, " they 
looked with wonder one at another." 

Rev. xiii. 3» s6otvf^x(rep oTTttra m S-i]pioVy "wondered after the 
beast," Eng. this is literal, but wants precision — '* looked 
with wonder," or " wondering followed after the beast." 

Ezra ii. 62. lS«ri, literally, " And they were polluted from 
the priesthood ;" " as polluted put from," Eng. which is 
right, V. 63* 

Psal. Ixxxix. 39. nSSn " thou hast profaned his crown to the 

ground ;" — " by casting it to,'' Eng. 
Isa. xiv. 17. nn'i nnD ^S ri^OX, literally, " loosed not his 

prisoners homeward." — Eng. •• opened not the house of his 

prisoners," no version.— -supply, " that they might return," 

or " sent them" home. 
Ch. xxxviii. 17. npE*n "thou hast loved my soul from the pit." 

— Eng. " hast in love to my soul delivered it from." 
Luke xxi. 38. " All the people a>p&fnt,e ^rpci uvrov^ literally, 

" rose early in the morning, or by the dawn, to him" — 

" came to him," Eng.—" rising came." 

871. Verbs sometimes denote, not the action or 
effect expressed by them simply, but under some par- 
ticular modification of it. [876.] 

872. Thus, verbs expressing an action or effect, 
sometimes denote only the beginning,^ and sometimes, 
only the continuance of it.^ E^^^*] 

Glass, ib. c. 3, 4. 
^ 1 Sam. iii. 21. '^ The Lord appeared again (continued to ap- 



VERBS. 301 

pear) nSjJ O. Eng. " for he revealed ;" others, " after the 
had revealed (begun to reveal) himself to Samuel." 

1 Kings vi. 1. "In the fourth year \y^ and he built,'* " began 
to build," Eng. for it was finished in the eleventh, v. 38. 
confirmed by 2 Chron. iii. 1, 2. 

Mat. ii. 7. " The time m (pxmftsvcv ttfepoi when the star appear- 
ed," began to appear, v. 16. 

Luke V. 6. " Their net hsq^Tiyvvro brake," began to break, or 
was like to break, v. 7. 
2 Lev. xxvi. 11. \"injl "And I will set my tabernacle (continue) 
among you." 

Jer. vii. 3. nJDkSX) '* And I will cause you to dwell (continue 
to dwell) in this place." 

873. Verbs sometimes express, not simply doing 
the action, but doing it in a particular manner, con- 
noting some quality, adjunct, or condition of it. 

Glass, ib. c. 13, 14. 

Ezek. xxvi. 14. " Thou shalt be built no more," Tyre — not strict- 
ly true, Palsetyrus — but * not built magnificently, elegantly.' 

Prov. xxxi. 4. " It is not for kings to drink wine," immoder- 
ately, to excess. 

Mat. xi. 18, 19. " Neither eating nor drinking," abstemious in 
both — " eating and drinking," not immoderately, but freely, 
like other men. 

Mat. X. 32. " Confess me," not simply, but with faith, boldness, 
subjection, v. 27, 28. Rom. x. 9. So 1 Johniv. 15. 

John viii. 34. 1 John iii. 9. v. 18. " Commit sin," wilfully, 
deliberately, habitually. 

1 Sam. X. 24. 1 Kings i. 25. "jSnn '0% Eng. « God save the 
king," but literally, " may the king live," prosperously, hap- 
pily. 1 Sam. XXV. 6. " to him that liveth," Eng. supply " in 
prosperity." So Psal. xxii. 26. Ixix. 32. 

1 Thess. iii. 8. " Now we live," are happy. 

" To will," does not signify always simple volition. — * To wili 



302 VERBS. 

with alacrity and readiness,' Mark x. 35. (deM/zev, " We 
will, • wish earnestly. Ch, xii. 38. 3-sMvrm, " who will," 
' lovei' Eng. Gal. iv. 21. ^f Aopr£$, Eng. " who desire to be 
under the law." 1 Tim. vi. 9, fiovXof^evoi TrXaretv, " they that 
will be rich," who wish for it earnestly, immoderately. — *To 
will, not absolutely, but under a condition.' Mat. xi. 27. 
<* To whomsoever the Son (liaMren) will reveal," not arbi- 
trarily, but to those who are qualified, as appears from the 
connexion, v. 25, 28. Rom. ix. 18. "He hath mercy on 
whom he will," ov S-e?^st, who are qualified as he requires. 
" And whom he will, he hardeneth," who deserve it by ob- 
stinacy. Locke, Taylor in loc. 
" Can, cannot," signify not simply what is possible or impos- 
sible, but can with ease, convenience, safety, inclination ; 
cannot without difficulty, pain, inconvenience, danger, loss. 
Gen. xliv, 22. " The lad cannot leave his father," conve- 
niently, safely, " for his father would die," Ruth iv. 6. " I 
cannot redeem," without loss, inconvenience, " lest I mar," 
&c. 2 Sam. xvii. 17. " They might not be seen," without 
danger, v. 18, &c. Luke xi. 7. " I cannot rise," without 
trouble, inconvenience. Mark vi. 5. " He could there do 
no mighty work'* — would not. or, did not. John vii. 7. 
"The world cannot (will not) hate you." Rev. ii. 2. 
" Thou canst not bear them that are evil," without pain, or, 
wilt not. 

874. Verbs expressive of an action, are often used, 
not to signify the doing of that action, but only to de- 
note some of the causes, or prerequisites to the doing 
of it. 

875. Thus, verbs of acting, often, in Scripture, are 
intended to signify only the power of acting ; and this 
usage gives great beauty and force to description. 

Glass, ib. c. 5. 

Exod. ix. 15. TinSiy " I have stretched (Eng. " will Wretch,'? 
wrong) out my hand, "jJ^i and I have smote (Eng. " that I 



VERBS, 303 

may smite," wrong) thee— and thou shalt be cut off." This 
is not true, as appears from the sequel ; it is contrary to v. 
16.. "For this cause T^'^^J^'^ (*have I raised thee up,' 
Eng. but) " have I made thee to stand," preserved thee safe 
from all plagues, " for to show in thee my power," more 
signally, ch. xiv. 23, &c. Therefore it should be, "I could 
stretch out, and smite, and cut oft'; but for this cause," 
&c. Job. ix. 5, 6, 7. "which removeth — overturneth — 
shaketh— commandeth—sealeth," &c. not actually does, but 
can do. 

Zech. ii. 4. "Jerusalem shall he inhabited — without walls ;" 
not actually, but might be with safety. 

Mat. vii. 16. " Do (can) men gather." Rom. x. 14. " How 
shall (can) they call," &c. 1 Cor. ii. ] 5. " He that is spiritual 
judgeth (can judge) all things — himself is (can be) judged of 
no man." 

876. As power is limited by right^ verbs denoting 
the power of acting/ and, likewise, verbs denoting ac- 
tion,^ often signify only the right of acting, or what 
can be lawfully done. 

Glass, ib. c. 6, 12. 

^ Gen. xxiv. 50. " We cannot (lawfully) speak bad or good." 

So ch. xxxiv, 14. xliii. 31. 
Deut. xvi. 5. " Thou canst not (lawfully. Eng. " mayest not") 

sacrifice the passover within thy gates." 
Acts iv. 20. " We cannot (lawfully) but speak." 
1 Cor. iii. 11. "Other foundation can no man (lawfully) 

lay." 

2 Gen. XX. 9. *' Thou hast done deeds which WV' ^^, shall not 
(cannot lawfully, ought not to) be done." 
Heb. V. 4. " No man taketh this honour," lawfully can, ought 
to take. 



304 VERBS. 

877. By a further extension, verbs of action some- 
times denote the obligaton to act, not only in negative 
propositions, where ' unlawful' and ' ought not' are 
synonymous, but also in affirmative propositions, 
where obligation to do is different from mere lawful- 
ness. 

Glass, ib. 

Neh. V. 8. " We have redeemed the Jews," ought to have re- 
deemed ; but had not, " Will ye sell them ;" 

Psal. xxxii. 8. " The way which thou shalt go," oughtest to 
go. 

Mai. ii. 7. " The priest's lips IIDty' shall keep knowledge," 
ought to keep, but did not, v. 8. 

Mat. xxvi. 52. " Shall perish," ought, deserve to perish. 

Luke iii. 14. " What shall we (ought we to) do?" What are 

our duties ? as appears from the sequel. 
Ch. vii. 42. «* Which of them will (ought to) love most ?" 

878. Verbs of action sometimes signify the will or 
inclination to do that action,^ or the endeavour to do 
it,* or both these together.^ 

Glass, ib. c. 7» 8. Macknight, Epist. Essay 4. i. 1. 
5 Gen. xxiv. 58. ^jSnn « wilt thou go ? "I'^K I will go." not 

simple futurity, but, chuse, incline to go. 
' Exod. xvi. 23. " Bake that which you will (chuse to) bake," 

&c. 
1 Sam. xxi. 9. " If thou wilt (chuse to) take that, take it." 
Mat. xiii. 13. "Seeing they see not," &c. chuse not to see, 

hear, understand. 
Ch. xxiii. 8. Ma; KXv)6i)T€, " Be not ye called Rabbi," desire not, 

affect not to be, as appears from the connexion, v. 6, 7. * love 

to be called.' 
Luke xxii. 26. ** He that is greatest, he that is chief," wishes 

to be, Mat. xx. 22. Mark x. 43. 



VERBS 305 

John XV. 15. " What his lord doth," chuses, intends to do. 

^ Exod. viii. 18. "The magicians did so with their enchant- 
ments,'' endeavoured to do it, " but thej could not." 

Ezek. xxiv 13. "I have purified thee,*' endeavoured, used 
means, been at pains, " and thou was not purged." 

John V. 44. Auf^^ccvovTsi, " who receive honour," labour to ob- 
tain it. 

Rom. ii. 4. " The goodness of God etyei leadeth thee to repent- 
ance," endeavours or tends to lead, or, ought to lead. 

1 Cor. X. 33. *' 1 please all men," endeavour to please. 

Gal V. 4. " Whosoever of you are justified by the law," en- 
deavour to be justified by keeping it. 

3 Psal Ixix. 4. 'n^D2^D, " they that destroy," wish and endeavour 
to destroy, 

Amos ix. 3. " Though they be hid from my sight," wish and 

endeavour to hide themselves, though they could not actually 

do it. 
John V 34, 41. Ov Xocf^^ccvc^, " I receive not," affect not and 

endeavour not to receive. 
Acts vii. 26. Syv3jAo68-ey, '* set them at one." Eng. " would have 

set," wished and endeavoured, Exod. ii. 13. 

879. Verbs of action sometimes denote, not the 
energy, but the habit and custom of acting,^ or a 
permanent quality disposing to act/ or even a perma- 
nent quality not so disposing^ but only possessed.^ 

Glass, ib. c. 9, 21. 
^ Gen vi. 21. "All food is eaten," uses to be customary food of 
all species. 
Ch. xxix. 26. niyjr' «S " It shall not be done." Eng. " it must 

not ;" it is not customary, 
Mark xv. 6. A^reAygv, " he released," was wont to release, Mat. 
XX vii. 15. 
2 Exod* iv. 14. " Aaron" 'y^T njT, literally, " speaking he speaks." 
39 



306 VERBS. 

Eng. "speaks well," has the quality which fits him for 
speaking elocjuentlT. \ 
2 Lev. xi. 3, &c. " Which part the hoof," have it parted or di- 
vided. 
Ma^. xxiii. 5. UXoirvvaa-t, " they make broad their phylacteries, 
Kete fA^eyecXwuTi^ and enlarge the borders," &c. have or use 
them broad, large, 

880. Verbs expressive of a person's doing an action^ 
sometimes signify only his giving another power or in- 
clination to do it/ or commanding and directing him 
to do it,^ or permitting his doing it/ or consenting to^ 
and approving of it."* 

Glass, ib. c. 1 1, 22. Macknight, Epist. prel. Ess. 4. i. 4. 
^ Acts X. 20. " I (the Spirit) have sent them." Cornelius had 
sent them, v. 8, 21. but the Spirit inclined and moved him, 
and that not immediately, but by an angel commanding and 
directing him, v. 3, 5. 
^ Gen. xlvi. 29. " Joseph made ready his chariot,*' by his servants, 
commanded them to make ready. 
2 Sam. xii. 9. " Thou hast killed Uriah." David did not kill 
him himself, but " with the sword of the children of Am- 
mon," to which he was opposed by David's order, ch. 
xi 15. 
John iii 22. iv. 1. "Jesus baptized," commanded his disciples; 
they, by his order and authority, baptized, v. 2. 
3 1 Sam. xiv. 36. nND*J, " Let us not preserve a man of them." 
Eng. "leave," suffer to remain. 
Job. i. 21. " The Lord hath taken away*'' permitted the Sabe- 

ans, &c. to take away, v. 15, 17. 
Psal. cxix. 31. "Put me not (permit me not to be put) to 
shame," i. e, deliver me from what would make my enemies 
insult. 

Isa. Ixiii. 17. " Why hast thou made us to err from thy Ways ?*' 
permitted us. 



VERBS. 307 

Jer. XV 15. " Take me not awav in thy \ox\% suffering," permit 
mit not my persecutors to take me away, by forbearing long 
to punish them. 

Mat. vi. 13. " Lead us into temptation," permit us not to 
be led. 

1 Cor. vi. 7. " Why rather etSiKetT&e, uTro'rTepeiTh, are ye not in- 
jured, defrauded?" — * do ye not take wrong, suffer your- 
selves to be defrauded ^" Eng. 

* Judg. ix. 18. Of the men of Shechem, "Ye have slain his 
sons." Abimelech did it, v. 5. but they consented, gave 
him the money which enabled him, strengthened his hands, 
V. 4, 24. 

2 Sam. iii. SO. " Joab and Abishai slew Abner." Joab slew 
him, V 27. 1 Kings ii. 5. Abner only consented or approved. 

Mark x. S5. " The sons of Zebedee" asked the chief places ; 
but Mat. XX. 20. their mother asked them for them. Some, 
* She of her own accord, as kinswoman and constant attend- 
ant of Jesus, but they consenting ;' therefore they are an- 
swered, V. 22 and said by Mark, to ask. Grot. Maldonat. — 
Others, * She by their instigation,' to avoid envy, and obtain 
greater favour; therefore, they alone are answered, v. 22. 
Glass, ib. 

881. Verbs which attribute an action or effect to a 
person or thing, are sometimes intended to signify only 
that that person or thing gives occasion to it,^ or is an 
instrument in producing it.^ 

Glass, ib. c. 10, 22. Macknight, Ess. 4. 
^ Exod. xxiii. 8. "The gift blindeth the eyes-^-and perverteth 
the words ;" is the occasion of not discerning and following 
what is right. 

2 Sam. xii. 14. " By this deed mi'NJ y^^ irritating thou hast 
irritated the enemies to blaspheme." — "given great occa- 
sion," Eng. 

Psal. Ixxvi. 10. " The wrath of man shall praise thee," shall 
prove an occasion of praising, though its aim and tendency 
be the reverse. 



308 VERBS. 

Isa. xliii. £4. " Thou hast made me to serve tvith thy sins." 
Acts i. 18. Judas iKTT^a-uTo "purchased a field with the reward 

of iniquity," was only the occasion of its being purchased, 

by returning the money, Mat. xxvii. 3, &c. 
Rom. xiv. 15. "Destroy not him with thy meat," &c. give 

not occasion for his being destroyed, by turning from the 

faith. 
^ Exod. xiv, 16. " Stretch out thy hand over the sea, and divide 

it." Moses could not : God did it by him, ch. xv. 4, &c. 
1 Cor. vii. 16. ^aTei^, " shalt save," be the means, instrument 

of saving. 
1 Tim. iv. 16. "Thou shalt save them that hear thee," be the 

instrument. 

882 Verbs expressive of a person's doing an action, 
or producing an effect, are often used for signifying 
only, his supposing it/ his discovering and acknow- 
ledging it/ or his notifying, declaring, promising, or 
foretelling it,^ which last usage it is of peculiar im- 
portance to attend to, in the prophetical writings.'* 
. Glass, ib. c. 15, 17, 18. Macknight, Ess. 4. i. 3. 
^ Gen. xlii. 30. |n'l, "And he placed us as spies." — "took us 
for spies," Eng. — supposed, reckoned us. 

1 Kings i. £1. "I and my son Solomon "iT'n shall be offend- 
ers," — '* counted offenders," Eng. 

Mat. X. 39. " He that Jindeth o Ivpm, his life, shall lose it," 
who thinks that he can find it by deserting the gospel, or en- 
deavours to find it. 

Ch. xiii. 12. " Whosoever hath not, from him shall be taken 
away »oii o £%£<, even that he hath," thinketh that he hath. 
" seemeth to have,'* Eng. Luke viii. 18. 

John vii. 28. " Ye both know me, and ye know whence I am,'* 
think that ye know. 
* Job V. 3. ^^m) " and I cursed his habitation," knew that it 
would be made unhappy. 



VERBS. 



309 



Psal. cxix. 1 28. 'n'^W'' " I rectify," or make right ; " esteem 
to be right," Eng. know and acknowledge. 

Hos. V. 15. "I will go till iDtyj<- they be guilty," become sen- 
sible of, and acknowledge their guilt. 

1 Cor. iii. 18. Mapo^ ysno-ea, " let him become a fool,** be sen- 
sible that he is a fool. 

2Cor. vii. 14. Our boasting flfAjj^e** eye vjj^^j is become truth/* 
discovered to be, " found a truth," Eng. 

' Exod- xiii. 2. ^h l^lp, "Sanctify to me the first-born," declare 

that they are separated to me, v. 11, 12, 13. 
Lev. xiii. 3. " The priest shall look on him, NDD1 and shall 

defile him," pronounce him unclean. So v. 13, IT. HHD 

" cleanse," declare clean. 
Psal. xxxiv. 3. iSlJ, "make great, magnify the Lord," declare 

or acknowledge him to be great. 
Acts X. 15. <* What God exuGocpio-s hath cleansed (pronounced 

clean) that do not thou koivov make (call) common," v. 28. 
^ Gen. XXXV. 12. " The land which I gave to Abraham and Isaac, 

to thee will I give it, and to thy seed will I give it," which I 

promised to Abraham and Isaac, I promise to thee, and will 

give to thy seed. 
Ch. xli 13. "Me he restored unto mine office, and him he 

hanged," foretold these events, ch. xl. 13, 19. 

1 Kings xix. 15, 16. "Anoint Hazael to be king over Syria," 
foretell that he shall be, 2 Kings viii. 13.—*' And Jehu shalt 
thou anoint to be k!!ig over Israel," only could foretell it, 
for Elisha anointed him, 2 Kings ix. 2, &c. 

Isa. vi. 9, 10. " Make the heart of this people fat, make their 

ears heavy, shut their eyes," prophecy that they shall be fat, 

deaf, blind. 
Jer. i. 10. "I have set thee over the nations, to root out, pull 

down, destroy, throw down, build, plant," to foretell all these 

things. 
Ch. XV. 1 . " Cast them out of my sight," foretell that they 

shall be cast out, v. 7. 



310 VERBS. 

Ezek. xiii. 19. " Will ye (the false prophets) pollute 'me — to 
slay the souls that (Eng. " should") shall not die, and to save 
the souls alive that (should) shall not live ?" to foretell that 
they shall be slain, saved alive ; for it is added, « by your 
lying to mj people." 

Ch. xxi. 26. " Remove the diadem, take off the crown, exalt 
him that is low, abase him that is high," predict that these 
things shall be. 

Ch. xliii. 3. " The vision which T saw when I came to destroy 
the city," to predict its destruction, ch. ix, x, 

883. Affirmative verbs are sometimes to be under- 
stood only in the sense of their contraries, with a nega- 
tion or an extenuation. 

Glass ib. c 19. 

Deut. iii. 26. "iri^rn^l " But the Lord was wroth with me for 

your sakes ;" the term implies great wrath, but here, only 

the not granting his request to enter into Canaan, v. 25. 
Mai. i. 2, 3. " I loved Jacob, and I hated Esau," quoted 

Rom. ix 13.— loved Jacob more than Esau, preferred him. 
Luke xiv. 26. " If any man hate not his father and mother," 

&c. love not them less than me. Mat. x. 37. 

884. Negative verbs are often put for the contrary 
affirmative verbs, and sometimes express the sense of 
them with emphasis. 

Glass, ib. c, 20. 

Lev. X. 1. '* Strange fire which he commanded them not," 

expressly forbade. 
1 Sam. xii. 21. " Vain things which cannot profit," idols which 

will hurt you by provoking God. 
Psal. Ixxxiv. 11. ** No good thing will 'he withhold from them 

that walk uprightly," will give them all good things. 

Prov. xii. 3. "A man shall not be established by wickedness," 
shall be overthrown. 



n 



VERBS. 311 

Ch; xvii. 21. " The father of a fool hath not joy," hath great 

sorrow. 
Zech. viii. 17. " Love not a false oath," hate it. 
John xiv. 18. "I will not leave you ef ^''^vji? orphans." Eng. 

" comfortless," will protect, give comfort, "1 will come to 

you." 
Rom. iv. 19 Mj; uo-Sevtjo-ccg, " being not weak in faith," very 

strong, as appears from the connexion. 
llev. xii. 11. "They loved not their lives unto the death," they 

readily resigned them to death. 

885. It is sometimes taken notice of, as an usage in 
the Hebrew verbs, that the persons are interchanged; 
but the instances alleged, of the second person being 
put for the third, and the third person for the first or 
the second, seem to be only false readings, of which 
some are corrected by manuscripts still extant, and 
none are countenanced by the ancient versions ; and 
when the first person is used for either of the other 
two, it is properly a figure, which will be considered 
afterwards. 

Glass, ib. c. 50. 

886. Plural verbs are sometimes used in a singular 
sense ; confessedly in the second and third persons,^ 
and most probably in the first also.^ 

Glass, ib. c. 51. 
^ Job xviii. 2. " How long will it be ere pD*i:?n ye make an end 
ofwords?"Bildad to Job. 
Gen. xxxiv. 27. " Because 1K?0D they had defiled their sister.** 

^hechem alone had done it, v. 2, &c. one of them. (861.) 
Mat. ii. 20. " They are dead which sought the child's life,'" 
Herod. 
* Gen. xxix. 27. " Fulfil her week n:njl and we will give thee 
this also." Laban alone says this. 



j 



312 VEBBS. 



2 Sam. xvi. 20. " Give counsel what niyj;: we shall do.'^ 
Absalom alone speaks, and there is no intimation of his in- 
cluding his generals along with him. 

1 Kings xii. 9. " What counsel give ye Tl^i) that we may- 
answer this people ?" Rehoboam alone spoken to, and he 
alone answered, v. IS, 14. 

Ch xxii. 3. " Ramoth is ours, and we be still and take it not.** 
Ahab. 

Job xviii. 2, 3. " fVe will speak ; wherefore are we counted," 
&c Bildad. 

Dan. ii 36. TDNJ, " We will tell the interpretation." Daniel, 
perhaps joining his companions with him, v. 17, 18. but 
perhaps himself only, v. 16, 19, 23 — 27. 

Mark iv. 30. " Whereunto shall we liken, &c. shall we compare 
it?" Christ. 

John iii. 11. " We speak that we do know," &c. Christ, not 
along with the prophets, Beza. — nor, with the Father and 
Spirit ; it suits Christ himself, ch. i. 18. iii. 32. 

Rom. i. 5. " We have received grace and apostleship." Paul. 

Gen. i. 26. " Let us make man," &c. it does not necessarily 
imply a plurality of persons. 

887. The preterite has sometimes the force of the 
pi Qsqiiam- perfect ; not only in the Hebrew, where the 
want of the latter makes it necessary ; but likewise 
in the Greek of the New Testament, both it and the 
aorists^ 
Glass, ib. c. 46. Macknight, ib. Ess. 4. ii. 3. 
Gen. xii. 1. "idk'I, " The Lord had said to Abram," Eng. before 

Terah's death, ch. xi. 31. Acts vii. 2, 3. 
Gen xxix. 12. n:^l, "And Jacob (had) told Rachel," before 

what is related v. 11. 
Exod xxxiii. 5. IDK^I, " And the Lord said (had said, Eng.) 

unto Moses," as appears from the connexion. 
Luke xix. 15. " He commanded these servants to be called 



VERBS. 318 

unto him, to whom e^MKe he had given (Eng.) the money.*' 
IMat. xiv. 3. " Herod having seized John, eSi^rev avrov kui thro 
had bound him and put him in prison," a considerable time 
before. 

John iv. 44. " He departed thence — for Jesus eyuotprvpmev had 
testified," before his departure. 

888. The past has sometimes the force of the pre- 
sent ; not only in the Hebrew, which wants a present 
tense^ but also in the Greek of the New Testament. 

Glass, and Macknight, ib. 

Gen. xxxii. 10. " I was (am) small for (less than) the least of 
all thy mercies." 

Exod. xxxiii. 19. T^uni, "And I have been (am, will be) gra- 
cious to whom I will be gracious, ir\Dn")l and have shown 
(show, will show) mercy," &c. 

Mat. iii. 17. " My beloved Son, in whom evhKwct, I am well 
pleased." So Luke lii. 22. 

Mat. xxiii. 2. " The Scribes and Pharisees sKctOiirocv sit in Moses' 

chair." 
Luke i. 47. " My spirit t^yuXXiotTs hath rejoiced." Eng. " doth 

rejoice." 
John i. 15. ovToq sjv, " this was (is) he of whom I spake." v* 26. 

£<rTDKsvj " there standeth one among you." 

Acts xii. 14. ** Told that Peter earrctvcci stands at the door." 

889. The tenses expressive of the past, have some- 
times, in Scripture, the signification of the future ; 
and that, not only in predictions, for expressing the 
certainty of the event, but also in other cases. 

Glass. Macknight ib. 

Isa. ix. 6. " Unto us a child *iS' hath been born, a son jnj hath 
been given," shall be. 

Ch. xxi. 9. X3, « There hath (shall, « cometh," Eng.) come a 
chariot, Babylon n*?33 hath fallen (Eng. " shall fall), 

40 



314 V£RBS. 

the graven images "iiaty he hath broken (shall break) unto the 

ground.'* 
Ch. liii. 4, &c. " Surely he hath borne our griefs, carried our 

sorrows ; we did esteem him ; with his stripes we have been 

healed ; the Lord hath laid on him ; he was oppressed," 

&c. 
John iii. 13. " No man avecQe^tsKsv hath ascended," for MvetQtjTe' 

TC6I shall ascend. 
Ch. V. 24. etvecQe^iszev "hath passed from death to life," not 

spiritual but eternal, as appears from the connexion. Erasm. 

Vatab. Zeger. 

Macknight. Glass, ib. 
Ch. XV. 6. " If a man abide not in me, e^Ajj^^j— ««< e^upmv&i}, 

he has been cast forth, and withered ;" " is" Eng. shall be. 
Rom. viii. 10. "Whom he justified, them also sSo^ectre he glori- 
fied," will glorify. 

890. The future tense is sometimes put to express 
the sense of the present^ both in the Hebrew, from 
necessity, and in the Greek, from following its idiom. 

Glass, ib. c. 49. 

Gen. ii. 10. " From thence TiS"* it shall be (was) parted." 

Num. xviii. 7. |nj«, " I will give (I give) your priest's office 

unto you. 
Psal. i. 2. " In his law n:in* shall (doth) he meditate." 
Luke xxiii. 46. " Into thy hands TrupcfJ^a-of^at will T commend 

ni}^ spirit," do I ; but TrotpxTiOty^en, TrapecnSijfAt, are found in 

several MSS. Mill, and Griesb. in loc. 

891. The future is sometimes, also, used in the sig- 
nification of the past. 

Exod. XV. 5. " The depths ID'DD"* shall cover," " have covered." 
Eng. 

Num xxiii. 13. HN'^n "Thou shalt see," Eng. and soipe inter- 
preters ; but others, "hast seen," which the sense requires. 



VERBS. 316 

Judg ii. 1. rh]fi<, " I will make you to go out of Egypt," 

" have made," Eng. 
Ch. V. 8. '^ny, " they shall chuse new gods," " chose," Eng. 
2 Sam. xii. 31. r\2fV' p\ " And thus shall he do unto all the 

cities," — "did he," Eng. 

892. The future of the indicative is often used in 
the sense of the imperative. 

In ail negative precepts, particularly of the decalogue. 

893. On the^ other hand, the i*: perative is often 
put for the future of the indicative ; attention to which 

is of great importance for the interpretation of many 
predictions. 

Glass, ib. c. 43. 

Gen. XX. 7. " He shall pray for thee, n^ni and live thou," thou 
shalt live. So ch. xlii. 18. 

Ch. xlv. 18. " I will give you the good of the land, iSdni and 

eat ye the fat of the land," ye shall eat. 
Deut. xxxii. 50. nDl, " And die in the mount, ^Dxm and be 

gathered unto thy people," thou shalt die and be gathered. — 

death is not the subject of a command. 
Psal. xxxvii. 27. " Depart from evil, and do good, pt^l and 

dwell for evermore," thou shalt dwell.— it is not a command, 

but a promise. 
Prov. iii. 4. ^iVD1, " And find favour," « so shalt thou find," 

Eng. it is a promise, v. 3. 
Ch. iv. 4. " Keep my commandments, n^m and (thou shalt) 

live." 
Isa. liv. 14. 'prri, " Be thou (thou shalt be) far from oppres- 
sion." 
John ii. 19. Aytreerf, " Destroy this temple," ye shall destroy; 

it is not a command, but a prediction. 



316 VERBS. 

894. Both the future of the indicative/ and the im- 
perative,^ have sometimes the force of the optative 
mode^ which is wanting in the Hebrew language. 

Glass, ib. c. 45. 
^ Job iii. 3. " The day "Tr5j<^ shall perish,'* may it perish. So also 
in the following verbs. 
Psal. Ixx. 2, 3, 4. livn', &c. "They shall be ashamed, confound- 
ed, turned back," &c. — "let them be,' Eng. 
2 Psal. xlv. 4. " In thy majesty nS^f ride prosperously," it is a 
wish. 
Often in prayers, as in all the petitions of the Lord's prayer. 

895. The imperative, as in all languages, often 
signifies, in Scripture, not command, but merely per- 
mission. 

Glass, ib. c. 43. 

2 Sam. xviii. 23. Joab says pD " run," not commanding, for 
had forbidden him, v. 20, 22. but permitting him on his 
importunity, v. 19, 22, 23. 

2 Kings ii. 17. Elisha says inV^y "send,'' not a command, 
for he had dissuaded and forbidden them, v. 16, 18, but mere 
permission. 

1 Kings xxii. 22. p nu^yi N% " Go forth and do so," not a com- 
mand to deceive, but permission. 

Mat. viii. 32. Jesus says to the demons, uTcctyttt^ "go," he only 
permitted them, Luke viii. 32. 

896. The imperative has sometimes the force of the 
subjunctive mode with a conjunction; expressing, not 
a prediction of what shall be, but a supposition of what 
may or may not be. 

Glass, ib. 

Num. xxiv. 21. CD^ri, " Put thy nest in a rock," thoui(h thou 
put, &c. " nevertheless the Kenites shall be wasted," v. 22. 



VERBS. 317 

Nah. iii. 15. " Make thyself many as the canker-worm," 

though thou make. 
Luke X. 28. Taro ttoki, " this do, and thou shalt live," if thou 

do this, thou shalt live. 
Eph. IV. 26. Ooyi^e<r$e, " be ye angry, and sin not," if, though 

ye be angry, sin not. 

897. The infinitive mode, which, in all languages, 
has a great analogy to substantive nouns, is often, in 
the Hebrew language, used as a noun. 

1 Kings viii. 52. " Hearken unto them ax*)p S33 (in omni 
orare eorum) in all their prayers." 

1 Chron. xvi. 36. *' All the people said. Amen. nin^S SSm (et 
laudare Jehovae) Kng. " and praised the Lord ;" but it is 
singular, and has the preposition — " and praise to the 
Lord." 

2 Chron. iii 3. IDin nSxi, Eng. "J\*ow these are the things 
wherein Solomon was instructed.^^ This is a strange ellipsis, 
and gives an unwarranted sense. — '' Of these (viz. dimen- 
sions) was Solomon's foundation," Jun. — " This was Solo- 
mon's foundation — the length," &c. which is simpler. 

Psal. ci. 3. " I hate n^V (facere) the deed (" work," Eng.) of 

them that turn aside." 
Luke vii. 21 " Unto many that were blind he gave to /3Ae5re/v 

to see," " sight," Eng. 
Heb. ii. 15. " Them that were hoc Trctvroi m ^jjv, through all 

their lifetime," Eng. 

898. When the infinitive is said to be used in the 
sense of the preterite, or the future, it is observable, 
that it generally differs from these tenses only in the 
vowel points ; and, therefore, though the usage may 
be real, it is not in all instances indisputable. 



318 VERBS. 

899. When the infinitive appears to be put for the 
imperative, it may, sometimes, be accounted for in the 
same manner ;^ but, as the usage likewise takes place 
in the Greek of the New Testament, to which that ac- 
count is not applicable, the usage is, undoubtedly, 
real, and is accounted for, either by an enallage of 
these two modes, or by an ellipsis of an imperative 
verb governing the infinitive.^ 

1 Exod. XX. 8. Deut. v. 12. 

* Mat V. 39. ** I say unto you jm-jj uvricrr?ivut not to resist" — 

"resist not," Em > Glass, ib. or supply B-e>^s, lAef^vvio-o, Knatchb. 

So V. 34. Luke ix. 3. 
Luke xxii. 42. E/ ^sAe/ Trccpeveyjcstv. Some MSS. have TrupB- 

ysytcs., TrotpevsyKCAi^ '^ei^£veyKVi,hut they are false readings — " let 

it pass," Eng. Mark xiv. 36. — or supply, B-sM, Knatchb. 

— or governed by /3»Ae/, " be pleased to let it pass," Grot. 

900. Participles being in their form exactly similar 
to adjective nouns, though implying time, it is not sur- 
prising that they should sometimes drop this implica- 
tion, and be used in the signification of adjectives,^ or 
that, like them, they should be put for substantives.^ 

Glass, ib. t. 4. c. 2. Macknight, ib. 
* Jer. xxiii. 2. *' Thus saith the Lord against tZD -^rnn O^nn 
the pastors that feed my people." 
Mark vi. 14. "John o ^etTrn^m baptising," for jSoc^rr/c-r^s, 
" baptist." 
2 Psal. xvii. 14. "Whose belly thou fiUest with pai; "hidden," 
what men are at pains to hide. Eng. supplies "treasure." 
Heb. i. 6. OiKHf^evj} "inhabited" — < world.' So ch. ii. 5. 
Rev. xii. 9. 

901. In Scripture, the present participle has some- 
times the signification of the present of the indicative, 
which is wanting in the Hebrew language. 



VERBS. 319 

Glass, ib. c. 4. 

Exod. ii. 14. 1DK "speaking (speakest. Eng. " intendest") 
thou to kill me ?" 

Exod. xxiii. 20. " Behold 1 rhw sending (send) an angel be- 
fore thee." 

Josh. i. 2. " The land which I |nn giving (give) to them." 

Rom. V. 1 1. " But we also KuvxaH'tvot, boasting, glorying (boast, 
glory. Eng. "joy") in God." 

902. Active verbs of the third person, sometimes 
refer not to any preceding noun, but have the force of 
impersonals, or are to be interpreted passively. 

Glass, ib. c. 23. Chandler, Life of David, b. 4. c 9. 
Gen. xvi. 14. " Wherefore 5<*^p (literally) he called the well 
Beerlahairoi ;" but it is Hagar who speaks ; " was called," 

Exod. X. 21. "That there may be darkness, jyD'i and he shall 
feel," any one may feel, or " may be felt." Eng. 

1 Sam. xxiii. 22. " For nnx he told me that he dealeth very 
subtlely." Some, David himself formerly ; but this is for- 
ced ; — " it is told me," Eng. or * I am told.' 

Luke xii. 20. "This night otTcccirnTn they shall require thy 
soul" — " shall be required," Eng, 

903. Verbs of the infinitive active, have^ sometimes, 
a passive signification ;^ and, in consequence of this, it 
may be doubtful, in particular instances, whether they 
ought to be explained actively or passively, and must 
be determined by the sense.^ 

^ Exod. ix. 16. ^3D \V^h (literally) propter enarrare — "that my 
name may he declared^^^ Eng. or *for the declaration, cele- 
bration, of my name.' 
Psal xlii. 3. 1QN3 in dicere — " while they say," Eng. * hi its 
being said, while it is said.' 



320 VERBS. 

Psal. Ixvi. 10. "Thou hast tried us" ^^)iD secundum conflare, 
— " as silver is tviedy^' Eng. or * according to the trial ;' — 
but, without the vowels, the verb is preterite, 

2 Gen. iv. 26. " Then it was begun &«"^pS to call upon the name 
of the Lord" — " men began to call," Eng. or " the name be- 
gan to be called upon,*' Pagn. Drus. or, ' they began to be 
called by the name.* 

Psal. li. 5. "That thou mightest be clear y5BW'2 in judi- 
care tuo,*' "when thou judgest," Eng. "when thou art 
judged." It is quoted Rom. iii. 4. ev tm Kptveo-dxt ts^ "when 
thou art judged," Eng. — But, it may be the middle voice, in 
which sense it suits the Psalm, where pmn is active, " when 
thou speakest," referring to 2 Sam. vii. 12, &c. In like 
manner, "judgest," referring to ch. xii. 9, &c. Taylor. 

904. Active verbs have sometimes the signification 
of the passive of their correlatives ;^ and passive verbs; 
that of the active of their correlatives.^ 

1 Mark iv. 21- " Doth a candle {e^x^rsct) come ?" — is it brought? 
Ch. ix. 29. " This kind can e^sxhtv come forth" — be cast out. 

* Eccl. iv. 13. " An old and foolish king, who knoweth not 
ininS to be admonished' — to receive admonition. 

905. Passive verbs have sometime an active/ and 
sometimes a neuter signification f whence it becomes 
doubtful, in particular texts, in what manner they 
should be understood.^ 

Glass, ib. c. 24, 25. 
1 Judg. xi. 25. " Did he fight," QPhi Niphal. 

Zech. ix. 9. " He is just ;^l!'/i:i and saved" — " having salva- 
tion," Eng. — " saving himself," marg. — " saviour," Glass. 

Acts xviii. 14. hSeKToci " received." Ch. xiii. 47. ivreTa.XTm. 

3,Exod. XV. 6. " By thy right hand mxj thou art magnified," 
made great — " art great, powerful." 



VERBS. 321 

^ Mat. V, 42- Tov B-eXovToi ctTTo o-a Sccveta-ctvBxt fcr flCTorr^a^jj?, 
" From him that would borrow of the<', turn not thou away," 
E no-, neuter — "be not turned away," synonymous— '^ him 
that would borrow from theo, turn not away," Sym- 
mach. in Psal. cxxxii. 10. Tins last is simpler. 

906. In the New Testament, the Greek verbs are 
sometimes used in the signfication of the Hebrew con- 
jugations, particularly Hiphil ;^ and hence, it may be- 
come ambiguous, whether they ought to be thus under- 
stood, or not, in particular texts.^ 

Glass, ib. c. 27. 
* Mat. V. 45. Av^ereAAe/, /3f f%e<, " He rises his sun, and rains," 
causeth to rise, to rain, Eng. 

1 Cor. iii. 6. " But God i}v^stvev increased," gave the increase, 
Eng. 

Heb. iv. 8. " If Jesus KetrsTrecvG-sv had rested," given them rest, 
Eng. 
' Luke xi. 53. " They began etToo-rotcctrt^eiv xurov to speak from 
memory, or off-hand ;' but this sense is not suitable ; — 
or " to silence ;" but this also is not suitable alone : — 
"to cause speak off-hand, provoke to speak, that they 
might silence him." 

Glass, ib. Erasm. Vatab. Zeger. Casaub. Grot. 
Beza. 

2 Cor. ii. 14. " Thanks to God" B-ptotfiQevtvn r^f^oi^ — neut. ' to 
triumph,' but not suitable. Active, ' to triumph over, lead 
as captives,* Col. ii. 15. (Erasm. Zeger. Drus.) — 'lead in 
triumph,' as victorious soldiers j— or Hiphil, ' to cause to 
triumph,' Eng. Similar verbs are thus used in 70. 1 Sam. 
viii. 22. xii. 1. xv. 35. 

1 Cor. viii. 3. " If any man love God, the same eyiuTroci" pass. 
" is known," Eng. approved, loved ; — or Hoph. ' is made to 
know, taught by him,' opposed to false knowledge, v. 1^ 2. 
Macknight, Ess. 4. and in loc. 
41 



322 



PARTICLES. 



SECT. VI. 

The Usage of Particles, 

907. All other words may^ properly enough, be 
comprehended under the name of Particles ; and are 
reducible to the article — pronouns — adverbs — prepo- 
sitions — and conjunctions. 

Glass. Nold. Macknight, Ess. 4. and Suppl. Hoogeveen. 

908. 1. Both the Hebrew and the Greek languages 
have an article : but in both, it is often used when it 
has no special force or emphasis. 

Deut. viii. 8. " Man doth not live by anSn the bread only ;" 
quoted Mat. iv. 4. cc^rea " bread." 

909. But, the article is often used with a pecular 
force, and that in diiferent ways. It is sometimes used 
for ascertaining a precise individual, formerly mention- 
ed. 

Gen. xxiv. 50. nmn " the thing," the proposal made by the 
servant, " proceedeth from the Lord '" 

Exod. IX. 27. " I have sinned CDj^sn the (this) time," by the 
refusal just now given. 

Mat. i. 17. " All «< -yeve*/, the generations,'* not, that had al- 
ready passed, for some are omitted, but, that had been enu- 
merated. 

John vi. 10. " There was much grass ev ra> rc'xca in f/ie place," 
viz. already mentioned, v. 1, or, where they then were. 

Acts ix. 17. " Ananias entered e/5 t;j» oix/«» into the house," 
to which he was formerly directed, v. 11. 



PARTICLES. S2S 

910. In analogy to this, the article, when used 
alone^ has sometimes the force of the demonstrative 
pronoun. 

'O Se ecTTOKpthtq eiTTev^ often. 

Mat. ii. 5. 'Oi Se ecrov uvro). " they said unto him.*' 

Mat. iv. 20. *0/, **they tollowed him." 

911. The article sometimes marks eminence in that 
to which it is annexed. 

Isa. vii. 14. "Behold nnS^^n the Virgin (not any virgin, but 
one remarkable virgin) shall conceive." So when quoted 
Mat. i. 23. 'H TTxphm- 

912. The article is sometimes a mark of univer- 
sality, intimating that the species in general is intend- 
ed, or any individual of it indefinitely. 

Mat. xii. 8. *0 viog rov eivSpaTTov. Some, "Jesus Christ," Zeger. 

Camer. But, " any man ;" so determined by the argument 

in Mark ii. 27, 28. Grot, So perhaps also v. 32. 

Ch. xviii. 17. " Let him be to thee as o ehiKog. any heathen." 

Mark i. 44. " Shew thyself ra> Upst to " any priest" or " the 

priests." So Matt viii. 4. Luke v. 14. 

913. The article prefixed to a participle present, 
often makes it to denote a character, an employment, 
a habit of life, or a general state of being ; and that, 
not only absolutely, or relative to the present time, but 
also, with respect to the past, or to the future. 

Taylor on Rom. ii. 1. 

Mat. iv. 3. 'o TTsi^x^m, * he whose character, custom, employ- 
ment it is to tempt.' 
Ch. viii. 33. '0< ^(><r«ovTf$, ' the keepers' by employment. 
Ch. xiii. 3. « a-Trstpm, 'a sower' by profession. 



324 PARTICLES. 

Mark vi. 14. © /3(«:rr<J&;v, ' the baptizer,* by profession, em- 
ployment. 

John xviii. 37. o m ik. rm ctXtjhtec^^ ' habitually, by disposition* 
of the truth.' 

Ch. iii. 15, 36. o ^la-revm^ ' the believer.' v. 20. o Trpxtrcrm^ 
' the doer.' 

Rom. ii. 1. Kpivm^ ' judger,' assuming the character and au- 
thority of a judge. 

Matt. ii. 20, ot i^t^TuvTe^^ ' they who employed themselves in 
seeking,' — or, ' they who had formerly sought,' the child's 
life. 

Acts XV. 21. " Moses of old time hath rm Kijpva-a-ovTUi them 
that'* are in use, or whose business it is to " preach him." 

914. There being so great variety in the usage of 
the article, its precise force must be, in some cases, 
doubtful, determinable only by the sense and connex- 
ion ; and arguments which rest merely on the insertion, 
or the omission of it, must be, in some degree, pre- 
carious. 

Luke xviii. 8. "But when the Son of Man cometh, apee, tvpa- 
tret rtjv Triarrtv btti tjjs yjjs ; vSome, 'coming to judgment;' 
others better, ' to the destruction of Jerusalem.' Some, yij 
' the earth ;' others better, •• the land' of Judea. Some, Tta-nq 
' faith' simply or in general, Eng. — others, ' the faith of it' 
viz. his coming, of which he had so often warned the Jews ; 
others , ' such faith as before described,' v, 1 — 6. 2 Thess. 

ii. 3, 8. *0 otv6^a7rog tjj^ eift-ocprtoii; — uioq t;j5 a^'xaP^eieiq — o ctvofjtoi. 

Papists conclude from the article, that one individual is 
meant, not a succession of Popes. Bellarm. — But the arti- 
cle is often used, when a whole class, either simultaneous 
or successive, is intended, as uvO^afTroi^ Mat. xii. 35, 
Mark ii. 27. Luke iv. 4. 2 Tim. iii. 17. and often with 
other nouns, as Rom. i. 17. Eph. vi. 16. Tit. i. 7- Heb. 
ix. 7. 1 Pet. iv. 18. 1 John ii. 18. 1 John ii. 18. 2 John 7. 
Rev. xxii. 11. Here, it seems emphatical, and means, emi- 
nent in the class, 



PARTICLES. 



325 



915. ^. As to Pronouns ; definite pronouns have 
sometimes an indefinite signification. 

• 1 Sam. xvii. 12. " David was the son of HTH ^r\13K W'ii that 
(an) Ephrathite." Sjr. Arab. Luth. 
1 Kings xix. 5. " Behold mT that (an) angel touched him." 
Elijah. Eng. 

916. Demonstrative pronouns have sometimes the 
signification of the relative, either only/ or together 
with their own.^ 

i Psal. ix. 15. " In the pit HI which they hid.*' Acts viii. 26. 

X. 36. 
' Exod. xiii. I. "Because of PT that which the Lord did." 

Eng. Psal. civ. 8. cxlii. 3. Isa. Ixiii. 1. 
Job xiii, 9. s<in^D, *' Who is he that will plead with me V^ 

Ch. xvii. 3. xli. 1. Isa. 1. 9. 

917. The relative pronoun has sometimes the signi- 
fication of the demonstrative. 

Acts xiii. 31. 'O5 ^^^2; (for o6rog) "Who (he) was seen many 

days.*' Eng. 
Ch. xxiv. 8. " Commanding his accusers to come, tu^* ou 

(" of whom," Eng. i. e. accusers, wrong) for rara, " of him 

mayest thou know.'* 

Heb. v. 7. *05 (" who," Eng. i. e. Melchizedec. wrong.) 

" He (Christ, v. 5.) in the days of his flesh," &c. 
Acts viii. 27. Col. i. 18. 1 Pet. iv. 3. ii. 8. 

918. The relative pronoun has sometimes the signi- 
fication of a copulative conjunction. 

Glass, ib. t. 7. can. 1. 

Eccl. V. 18. na^ lli/i^ a^D, " good and comely," Eng. and other 

Vers. 
Jer. xvi. 13. |nx xS niyx, ''And I will not show," Syr. "Where," 

Eng. Nold. 



326 i* ARTICLES. • 

919. The relative pronoun has sometimes the signi- 
fication of a conditional conjunction. 

Glass, ib. can. 5. Nold. 

Lev. iv. 22. N'iyJ nu'X, "/jf a ruler bath sinned,*' Onk. 70- 
Sjr. Arab. v. 5, 27. " When," Eng. Pagn. Luth. Trem. 
Vatab. 

Dent. xi. 27. lyOB^n niyx, " If ye obey," .(ok v. 28. 2 Chron. 
vi. 22.) Eng. Onk. 70. Syr. Vulg. &c. 

1 Kings viii. 31. 5?'J< NDH^ *iiyt«, " ijf any man trespass,'* Eng. 
But in such instances, it may perhaps retain its own signifi- 
cation, the antecedent being either omitted or transposed. 

920. The relative pronoun has sometimes the signi- 
fication of the final^^ the illative/ or the causal con- 
junctions.^ 

Glass, ib. can. 20. Nold. 
^ Gen. xi. 7. " T/iaf they may not understand." Onk. Syr. 70. 

Vulg. Pagn. Loth. Trem. Eng. 
Deut. iv. 40. " That it may go well with thee." So explained 

by JJTd'?, " that thou mayest prolong thy days.'* Onk. Syr. 70. 

Vulg Pagn. Luth Eng. 
Gen. xxiv. 3. Exod. xx. 26. Deut. iv. 10. vi. 3. xi. 10. 

xxxii. 45. Josh. iii. 7. Ruth iii. 1. 1 Sam ii. 23. 2 Chron. 

i. 11. ii. 5. xviii. 15. Ezra ii. 63. Neh. ii. 5, 7, 8. vii. 65. 

viii. 14, 15. Psal. clxiv. 12. Eccl. v. 4. vii. 21. Isa. Ixv. 16. 

Jer, xlii. 14. Dan. i. 8. 
* Psal. xcv. 11. 'W^ " To whom 1 sware;'* but, "therefore I 

sware," Pagn, Diod. it is the conclusion from v. 8, 9, 10. 
3 Deut iii. 24. « For what God is there," Onk. 70. Syr. Vulg. 

Pagn. Luth. Eng. 
Job. viii. 14. iSdd oy ^^'^y " Whose hope shall be cut off,*' Eng. 

but it suppresses the pronoun 1. " For his hope," Chald 70. 

Luth. 
Isa. xix. 25. « fVhom the Lord shall bless," Eng. but it sup- 
presses ) in DID. "For the Lord shall bless him,'' 



PARTICLES. 327 

Zech. r. 15. " For I was but a little displeased,* ^Sng, 
Josh. xxii. 31. " Because ye have not committed this trespass," 
70. Chald. Syr. Vulg. Eng. 

1 Sam. XX. 42. xxv. 26. 2 Sam. xiv. 22. and many other 
texts referred to in Nold. sig. 12, 13. 

921. 3. Abverbs are reduced into many different 
classes, which belongs to grammar ; but, in all of 
them, difficulties, especially ambiguities, often occur. 

922. Adverbs which properly signify rest in a place, 
sometimes denote motion to a place. 

Glass. 1. 3. t. 5. can. 4. 

Deut. i. 37. " Thou also shalt not go tZD^ thither,^^ Eng. 

2 Kings xix. 32 " Nor shoot an arrow J^^f there,'*^ Eng. " hith- 
er,*' or, « thither." 

Judg. xviii. 3. 1 i^am. ii. 14. ix. 6. x. 5, 2 Sam. ii. 2. xvii. 18. 

2 Kings ii. 21. vi. 9. Psal. cxxxix. 10. Isa. xxxvii. 33, Ivii. 7. 

Jer. xxii. 11. Ezek. xlvii. 9. 
Mat. ii. 22. " He was afraid to go eKst thither,'^ Eng. 
Mat. xvii. 20. xxiv. 28. Luke xvii. 37. xxi. 2. John xviii. 3. 

Rom. XV. 24. 

923. Abverbs of place have sometimes the significa- 
tion of adverbs of time. 

Glass, ib. 

Eccl. iii. 17. " There is a time CDiy f/iere," Eng. but, there is 
here no reference to place. * then,'^ viz. when God shall 
judge. 

Psal. xxxvi. 12. " There/^ Eng. rather, " Then are the workers 
of iniquity fallen.'' 

Hos. ii. 15. "I will give her vineyards CDli*D from thence,^^ 
Eng. i. e. from the wilderness. Or, * from that time, im- 
mediately. 



328 PARTICLES. 

924. Adverbs of time expressing perpetuity, some- 
times denote only frequency, or regularity at stated 
times, or a considerable length of duration. 

Glass, ib. can. 6. 

Exod. xxvii. 20. "To cause the lamp to burn n^DH always," not 
strictly, for only " from evening to morning," v. 21. ch. xxx. 
8. Lev. xxiv. 3. 1 Sam. iii. 3. 

Exod. xxviii. 30. " Aaron shall bear the judgment of the chil- 
dren of Israel on his heart TDPt always ; but only *' when he 
went in before the Lord," as appears from the preceding 
clause. 

1 Kings X. 8. " Which stand T?Dn continually before thee," 
frequenrly, at the proper times of attendance. 

Luke XV iii. 1. " That men should pray Travrore always," ver|^ 
frequently, with perseverance. 

V. 5. £19 r6A«5, " continually," frequently. 

Ch. xxiv. 53, ^lecTTccvToq, "continually," at the stated times, 
often. So John xviii. 20. 1 Thess v. 16, 17. 

925. Adverbs denoting a termination of time, are, 
notwithstanding, often intended, not to intimate a ter- 
mination, but to signify perpetuity. 

Glass, ib. can. 12. 

Deut. xxiv. 6. "No man knew of his sepulchre unto this day^^ 

i. e. *^ ever," it was not discovered afterwards. 
1 Sam. XV. 35. " Samuel came no more until the day of his 

death," never came. 
£ Sam. vi. 23. *' Michael had no children until the day of her 

death." 
Isa. xxii- 14. *' This iniquity shall not be purged till ye die." 

never. 
Mat. i. 25. " He knew her not la^ou till she had brought forth," 

&c, never knew her. 

Rom. V, 13. <^x9^' " until the law, sin was in the world," then, 
as well as after. 



PARTICLES. 329 

926. The negation of continuance often does not 
imply prior existence, but is equivalent to a simple 
negation of all existence. 

Glass, ib. can. 11. 

Acts xiii. 34.M;)j6£r<, '' JVo more to return to corruption,'* 

' never to see corruption.' Psal. xvi. 10. Acts ii. 29. xiii. 37. 
Rom. vi. 9. " Death has «« sn no longer dominion over him," 

'no dominion,' for never had, Heb. ii. 14, Acts ii. 24. 
Rom. vii. 17. " It is no more &■» en, I that do it," *not I.' So 

V. 20. 

927. Adverbs, expressing a definite time or num- 
ber, often mean only an indefinite. 

Glass, ib. can. 5, 14. 

" Yesterday," for any past time. S Sam. xv. 20, "Thou 
camest but Sinn yesterday,'^ lately. 

2 Kings ix. 26. " I have seen l^Dt? yesterday, the blood of Na- 
both," lately. 

Job viii. 9. " We are Sinn of yesterday,** lately born. 

Isa, XXX. S3. "Tophet is ordained '71DnxD from yesterday," 
" of old," Eng. xMat. xxv. 41. 

Gen. xxxi. 2. " It was not to him as tDwhlif SiDn yesterday 
and the day before," formerly. So, v. 5. 

" To-day," for the present time. Deut. xxvii. 9. QVn " Ihis 
day thou art become the people of the Lord." *Now art.' 

"To-morrow," for any future time. Gen. xxx. 33. " ^o shall 
my righteousness answer for me IHD to-morrow,^^ " in time 
to come," Eng. 

Exod. xiii. 14. " When thy son asketh thee "IID to-morrow,'^' 
« in time to come," Eng. 

Luke xiii. 32. " I do cures o-vifA.spov xoti uvptov to-day and to mor- 
row,^' i. e. at present, and for a short time ; x«; rsj t^/tjj "on 
the third" i. e. soon after, " I shall be perfected." — " Seven 
times," for, often. Psal. xii. 6. and other texts. 
42 



330 PARTICLES. 

928. Adverbs of number are sometimes used, not to 
express number, but to denote some other conception. 

Glass, ib. can. 14, 

*' Once," certainly, immutably, perfectly. Psal. Ixxxix. 35. nriN 

" Once have I sworn," immutably, v. 33. 34. 
" First," not in order, or time, but ' chiefly.' Rom. i. 8. 
" First I give thanks to God," chiefly, especially. Rom. iii. 2. 

" Chiefly because that," &c. Eng. 

929. Adverbs of doubting sometimes do not express 
uncertainty, but rather hope, accompanied with de- 
sire ; and, in some instances, implying a condition on 
which the event is suspended, or a difficulty in the 
thing. 

Glass, ib. can. 25. Nold. 

Gen. xvi. 2. "'Sis^, " It may be that I may obtain children by 

her." It expresses both her desire and hope. 
Josh. xiv. 12. 'Six, " If so be the Lord be with me, then I shall 

drive them out," Eng. Literally, * Perhaps the Lord (will 

be) with me, and 1 shall drive, &c. He was confident of 

it, V. 9. 
1 Sam. vi. 5. " Fer adventure he will lighten his hand, might 

expect it on the condition prescribed. 
Gen. xxxii. 20. Exod. xxxii. 30. 1 Sam. ix. 6. 2 Sam. xvi. 12. 

2 Kings xix. 4. Jer. xxi. 2. Amos v. 15. Zeph. ii. 3. 
Gen. iii. 3. (3, " Lest ye die ;" it expresses not doubt, but may 

be resolved into, * that ye die not.* 
Ruth iv. 6. " Lest I mar mine own inheritance ;" this would be 

the consequence. 
Gen. xix. 15, 17. xxxviii. 23. xliv. 34. Num. xx. 18. Deut. vii. 

25. 2 Sam. i. 20. and many other texts. 
Acts viii. 22. E/ ctp», " If perhaps the thought maybe forgiven," 

Eng. Vulg. wrong ; it is not an adverb of doubting, but here 

either pleonastical, or emphatic. 



PARTICLES. 331 

Phil. iii. 11. E/ W6»5, " If by any means I miglit attain," &c. no 

doubt of his resurrection. 
Rom. xi. 21. Mj; TToJi, " Lest he spare not thee/' not doubtful, 

but certain, v. 22. So 1 Cor. ix. 27. Gal. ii. 2. 1 Thess. 

iii. 5. 

930. Adverbs of negation are often used, only to 
intimate comparison, signifying preference of that 
which is affirmed, to that which seems to be denied. 

- Glass, ib. can. 22. 

Gen. xlv. 8. ** J\'ot you sent me hither, but God ;" not so much 
you as God, rather God than you. 

Exod. xvi. 8. " Your murmurings are not against us, but against 
the Lord," more against him than us. 

1 Sam. viii. T. " They have not rejected thee, but thej have 

rejected me;" rather, * more me than thee,' or, * not only 

thee, but me.' 
Prov. viii. 10. IIos. vi. 6. Prov. xvii. 12. Jer. vii. 22. xxxi. 34. 

Joel ii. 13. Amos v. 25. Psal. cxlvi. 3. 
Mat. V. 39. "Resist not evil, 6^^ whosoever shall smite thee on 

the right cheek, turn to him the other." Proverbial, Lam. 

iii. 30.) * Do so, rather than resist violently.' 
Mat. vi. 19. 20. " Lay not up treasures upon earth, — but lay 

up treasures in heaven ;" * rather, more carefully, in heaven 

than on earth.' 
Mat. X. 20. " It is not ye that speak but the Spirit of your 

Father," not only, not so much, ye as the Spirit. 
Mark ix. 37. " Whosoever shall receive me, receiveth not me, 

but him that sent me," not only, not so much, me as him. 
Mark xiii. 11. Luke xiv. 12. John v. 22, 30, 45. vi. 27. xii. 44. 

Acts V. 4. 1 Cor. i. 17. Eph. vi. 12. Col. iii. 2. 1 Thess. 

iv. 8. 

931. Adverbs of comparison sometimes express, 
not similitude, but the thing itself, being thus redun- 
dant. 



332 PARTICLES. 

Glass, ib. c. 28. 

Num xi. 1. "The people were CD'JJlxnDD as complaiiiers," 
" complained," Eng. 

Deut ix. 10. " On them were written hjD as (Eng. according to) 

all the words," &c. i. e. the words themselves. 
Judg. xiii. 23. " Nor would npD as at this time have told us 

riNT as these things/' twice redundant. 
Obad. i. 11. " Thou wast as one of them. 
Neh. vii. 2. Job xxiv. 14. Psal. cxxii. 3. Isa. i. 7. xiii. 6. Hos. 

iv. 4. 
Mat. xiv. 5. " They held him as a prophet," i. e. to be. 
Luke xxii. 44. " His sweat was aTsi as it were drops of blood.'* 

Some, * only, like blood,' Theophyl. Others, * real blood,' 

Jerom. 
John. i. 14. Rom. ix. 32. 1 Cor. iv. 1. 2 Cor. ii. 17. iii. 18. 

Phil. ii. 1, 2. Philem. 9. 2 Pet. i. 3. 

932. Adverbs of similitude often denote, not equa- 
lity, but such an imperfect degree of resemblance, or 
analogy, as is pointed out by the nature of the things 

. spoken of. 

Glass, ib. can. 27". 

Mat. V 48. " Be ye perfect, ao-Trep, even as your father in 

heaven is perfect." equality is here impossible. So Luke 

vi. 36. 

933. 4. As to Prepositions : Such as properly de- 
note motion to a place or thing are sometimes used for 
signifying rest in it. 

Glass. 1. 3- t. 6. can. 4. Nold. 

Gen. xlix. 29. "Bury me Sk (to, into) iri the cave." 

1 Kings viii. 30. " Hear thou S« in thy dwelling place, Sk in 

heaven." 
Mat. ii. 23. " He dwelt f/5 ^oA/v (into) in a city." 
Mark i. 9. " Was bapti^-ed by John c/s in Jordan.'* 



PARTICLES. 335 

Acts viii. 23. <'Thou art m in the gall of bitterness." 

934. On the other hand, prepositions of rest have 
sometimes the force of those of motion. 

Lev. xvi. 22. « He shall let go the goat n3nD3 in (into) the 

wilderness." 
Luke i. 17. *' The disobedient ev in (unto) the wisdom of the 

just." 
Lukfr.vii. 17. "This rumour went forth cv, in (into, through) 

Judea.*' 
Luke xxi. 23. Rom. i. 23, 24, 25. 1 Thess. iv. 7. 1 John 

iv. 9. 

935. Prepositions primarily expressive of local mo- 
tion, or rest^ are often used for denoting conceptions in 
any way analogous to motion, or rest, and without any 
reference to place. 

Glass, ib. can. 5, 6, 8, 9, Nold. 

1. Those of motion to a place signify, sometimes, * concerning,' 
as a subject. 

Job xlii. 8. " Ye have not spoken ^Sk (to) concerning, of me, 
what is right." 

Ezek. xxi. 28. " Thus saith the Lord^S^i concerning the Am- 
monites, and concerning their reproach.'* 

Luke six. 9> " Jesus said Tr^og (unto Eng.) concerning him." 

Acts ii. 25. " David speaketh f /s (unto) concerning him," 
Eng. 

Sometimes, * on account of, for.' 

Gen. xxxvii. 35. " I will go down into the grave hi^ (unto 
70. Vulg. Eng.) on account of my son, mourning," Onk. 
Syr. 

1 Sam iv. 21. " She named the child.^' &c. bii because of the 
ark of God being taken. 

Mat. xix. 8. *' Moses, 5r^«5, because of the hardness of your 
hearts," Eng. So Mark x. 5. 



334 PARTICLES. 

Mat. vi. 34. " Take no thought et<;for to-morrow." 

Mark i. 38. " For e/s tovto therefore Eng. (on account, for the 

sake of this) came I forth," 
Sometimes, 'against.' 
Gen. iv. 8. " Cain rose up Sn against Abel." Eng. Syr. Vulg. 

Pagn. &c. 
Num. xxxii. 14. " Anger of the Lord Sk (Eng. " towards") 

against Israel." 

Judg. xii. 3. ^' Wherefore are ye come up ''bi^ (Eng. " unto") 
against me, to fight against me ?" 

1 Sam. V. 6. ** The hand of the Lord was heavy Sx (Eng. 
" upon") against Ashdod." 

2 Sam. xiii. 19. xiv. 1. CD'.SjyDX Sk, Eng. *« unto, toward," or, 
*' against " doubtful. 

Mark xii 1'2, ** Parable tt^o^ uvrovg, against them," Eng. 

John X. 35. ilfas otJ?. Eng. " Unto whom the word of God came." 

— " against whom," Psal Ixxxii. 2, 5t7, 
Acts xi. 2. " They that were of the circumcision StsK^tvovro Tpag 

avrov. Eng. " contended with him." — " argued, cavilled 

against him," Vulg. 
2 Cor. V. 12. " That 3^ou may have somewhat Tr^og rov^ (Eng. 

*' to answer'^) them which glory." — *' against them," &c. 

which is simpler. 
2 Prepositions expressive of motion from a place, sometimes 

denote derivation from an efficient cause. 
Gen. XV. 4. '* He that shall come forth "j'^tdd from thine own 

bowels." 
Prov. xiii. 11." Wealth by vanity S^iriD shall be diminished," 

Eng. supplies gotten, which is wrong. 
Mat. i. 20r SK, "from the Holy Spirit," as the author. 
3. Prepositions signifying motion through a place, denote some- 
times * by,' or * by means of ' 
John vi. 57, "I live ^ict, by the Father— he shall live Si^ by me." 
Heb. ii. 2. " The word spoken «?/' by angels." 
Sometimes, * on account, for the sake of.' 



PARTICLES. 335 

Rom. iv. 25. *' Delivered Sicc for our offences— raised for our 

justification." 
Sometimes, *with respect to, in relation to.* 
Rom. iii. 25. Atx mv rrufnriv (Eng. for) " with respect to the 

remission (passing over) of sins which are past." Taylor 

and Macknight in loc. So ch. iv. 23. viii. 10. 
4. Prepositions of rest have the like variety of significations, 

denoting, sometimes, * concerning.' 

1 Sam. xix. 3. " I will commune with my father p of (con- 
cerning) thee." Rom. xi. 2. 2 Tim, i. 13. 

Sometimes, *by.' 

Luke iv. 1. " Was led ev hy the Spirit," Eng. it is so explained. 

Mat. iv. 1. vTTo. 
Sometimes, * with.* 

Mat. iii. 11. Luke xix. 34. Mat. vi. 29. Eph. vi. 2, 
Sometimes, ' on account of, for the sake of.' 
Gen xxix. 18. Deut. xxiv. 16. Mat. vi. 7. xi. 6. Acts 

vii. 29. 

936. Some prepositions are used, both in reference 
to place, and to time. 

Buxt. Gram. c. 58. 

937. 5. With respect to Conjunctions. The co- 
pulative conjunction, sometimes, does not merely con- 
nect a thing with the preceding, but likewise indicates 
some singularity, or pre-eminence in it. 

Glass. 1. 3. t. 7. can. 3. 

Josh. ii. 1. " View the land, and (especially) Jericho." 

2 Sam. ii. 30. 2 Chron. xxvi. 10. Neh. viii. 15. Mark iii. 
7, 8. 

Mark xvi. 7. " Go, tell his disciples, and (especially) Peter." 
Acts i. 14. xxvi. 22. 1 Cor, ix. 5. 



336 PARTICLES. 

938. The copulative conjunction has, sometimes, 
the force of the relative pronoun. 

Glass. 1. 3. t. 2. can. 15. 

Exod. X. 25. " Thou must give us sacrifices — )r\if};) lit. <' and 

we will sacrifice ;" which we may sacrifice. 
Isa. xxxix. 6. " The days come, i^^}) and shall be carried (in 

which) all that is in thine house." 

939. The conditional conjunction has, often, the 
force of interrogative^ — of an adverb of deniaP — of 
a causal conjunction.^ 

Glass, ib. can. 6. 
^ Job vi. 13. Mat. xii. lO."- 

2 Gen. xiv. 23. 1 Kings i. 5t. Mark viii. 12. 

3 Job xiv. 5. Ezek. xxxv. 6. Mark xv. 44. John x. 35. xiii.S2. 

Acts iv. 9. xi. 17. xxvi. 8, 23. Rom. xi. 17. viii. 31. 1 Tim. 
V. 10. Heb. vii. 15. 1 Pet. i. 17. 1 John ii. 29. 

940. Disjunctive conjunctions do not always denote 
separation of things opposite, but, sometimes, only dis- 
tinction of things of the same kind, and, generally, so 
as likewise to intimate their connexion. 

Glass, ib. can. 8. 

Mat. V. 17. " The law or the prophets." 

1 Cor. xi. 27. " Whosoever shall eat this bread, «f or drink." 
Hence Papists argue, that the bread alone is sufficient. But 
this is groundless, as appears from the connexion ; they are 
disjoined to show that they are entitled to equal reverence. 

1 Cdr. xii. 13. "All baptized into one body, etrs whether 
Jews, eirs or Gentiles, or bond, or free," i. e. * and,' all of 
us Christians. 

1 Cor. xiii. 8. Col. i. 20. Gal. i. 12. 

2 Thess. ii. 15. " Traditions etre either by word, or by epistle." 
, Papists, that therefore they are different : groundless— the 

same, delivered in these different manners. 



PARTICLES. 337 

941. The causal conjunction denotes, sometimes^ 
not the cause of the thing spoken of; but only the rea- 
son of the conclusion deduced. 

lb. can. 17. 

Mat. xvi. 2. " Fair weather, for sky red"— this not the cause 

of fair weather, but sign from which they inferred it. 
John X. 26. " Ye believe not a yap ecre for ye are not of my 

sheep" — this, not the cause of infidelity, but its effect. 

942. The other causal conjunction sometimes de- 
notes, not the final cause, but only the event. 

lb. can. 19. 

Exod. xi. 9. " Pharaoh shall not hearken unto you, |;?dS that 

my wonders may be multiplied*' — not Pharaoh's design, but 

the consequence of his conduct. 
Num. xxxii. 14. Deut. xxix. 19. Psal. li. 4. Jer. vii. 18. 

xxvii. 15. Ezek. xxi. 15. Amos ii. T» Mat. xxiii. 34. John 

ix. 2, 3, 39. Rom. i. 20. 1 Cor. xi. 19. 2 Cor. iii. 13. 

1 John ii. 19. 
" That it might be fulfilled,*' frequent. Mat. xxvii. S5, John 

XV. 25. xvii. 12. xix. 24. xii. 38. 
It has likewise other significations : " on account of,*' Gen. xviii. 

24. Deut. iii. 26. Prov. xvi. 4. Isa. Ixvi. 10. is explana- 

tive, John xv. 8, 13. xvi. 7, 32, « so that," 2 Cor. i. 17. vii. 

9. Rev. viii. 12. 
43 



338 DIFFICULTIES IN DETERMINING 



SECT. VII. 



Difficulties in determining the Parts of Speech, 

943. There is, sometimes^ difficulty in determin- 
ingj to what class a word belongs^ or, what part of 
speech it is, in a particular passage. 

944. 1. Words belonging to different classes, some- 
times consist of the very same letters, so that it cannot 
be known, by the mere inspection of them, in what 
class they should be reckoned in a passage. A word 
may, for any thing that appears in the structure of it, 
be — a noun, or a verb, or a particle^ — one part of a 
noun, or of a verb, or another part of it^ — a particle 
of one species, or of another species f and the sense 
will be different, according as it is taken for one or 
another : it can be determined only by the scope and 
connexion, or by parallel places ; but, when different 
senses are consistent with these, it may remain doubtful 
which ought to be preferred. 

i Isa> xiv. 19. Q'Jiin ty:3S , . K'^S is regular, i2^nS in 35 MSS. of 
which 10 ancient, and 3 editions ; a noun signifying "cloth- 
ing, raiment,'' Eng. "and as the raiment of those that are 
slain" — supplement groundless ; without it, abrupt : or, the 
participle preterite of D'n'?, *"' clothed, covered.'* "Clothed 
with the slain," covered with the dead bodies, sense. Lowth. 
in loc. 

Isa. xxix. 22. "Thus saith the Lord who redeemed Abraham 
:Dpj;' ;ra-'7is* ; h'K "to the house of Jacob" — but, no address 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. oS9 

to them : Eng. " concerning the house of Jacob" — Sx God, 
"the God of the house of Jacob"— common phrase. — 
Lowth. 

Isa. xxxiii. 21. "But mn' Tns* DtJ^ ; CDtJ^ adverb, "there the 
glorious Lord will be unto us as a place of broad rivers," 
Eng. — but CDSy iiame ; " the glorious name of the Lord." 
70. Syr. structure. See Psal. xx. 1. Prov. xviii. 20. — 
Lowth. 

Isa. xlviii. 16. "From the time that it was," nnrn. but 2 
MSS. Dnrn "theij were," began to exist. — OX Diy, Eng. 
"there I am,'* adverb, but t2^ verb. " I decreed it.'' sense. 
Lowth. 
* Isa. xxi. 5. yyv, •^SV, bnx, nnty, infinitives ; or, otherwise 
pointed, imperatives singular. Eng. in the latter way, " pre- 
fare the table, watch in the watch-tower, eat^ drink.^' 
Others in the former way, infinitives absolute, (as Ezek. i. 
14.) *• The table is prepared, the watch is set, they eat, 
they drink." Lowth. 

Isa. xlvii. 3. LDnx r^sx xSi. " And I will not meet (Eng. sup- 
plies thee as) a man" — obscure ; but, with other points, or 
written fully j?03K Hiph. " I will not suffer man to inter- 
cede" — plain. Lowth. 

Isa. Ivii. 14. " He that putteth his trust in me, shall possess the 
land — nnxi and shall say" Eng. : but to be pointed as the 
1st pers. fut. " and I will say." God the speaker, for, " mij 
people" follows. Lowth. 

3 Mark xi. 13. Ov yuo jjv tcxt^e? c-vKm — 6v either a negative 
conjunction, '*for it was not the season of figs" — means not, 
* the proper season of bearing figs,' else Jesus could not have 
expected to find them ; and, it was the season, near the 
passover — but, *the season of gathering,' (Matth. xxi. 34.) 
none taken off, therefore he justly expected to find them — 
or, ov where, adverb of place ; " for, where he was, it was 
the season of figs." Zeger. Grot. Lamy. Knatchb. Mack- 
night, vvv is, sometimes, an adverb of time, sometimes, an 
adversative, and sometimes, an illative conjunction. Glass* 
p. 709. note. 



340 DIFFICULTIES IN DETERMINING. 

945. 2. When it is sufficiently clear to what class 
a word belongs, considered simply in itself, there may 
yet be difficulty in determining whether, in a particular 
passage, it is not used in place of some other part of 
speech. 

946. Of two substantives in the constructed state in 
Hebrew, or in government in Greek, one is often in 
place of an adjective, and has the signification of one. 

Glass. 1. S. t. 1. can. 8. 

947. Of two subtantives joined by a copulative con- 
junction, one has the force of an adjective. 

Glass, ib. can. 6. 

Gen. iv. 4. "Abel brought of the firstlings of his flock, and of 
the fat thereof," i. e. of the fattest firstlings of his flock. 

948. A substantive, governed by a preposition, has 
often the force of an adjective. 

Glass, ib. can. 9. 

Isa. iv. 2. " The branch of the Lord shall be for beauty and 
glory," i. e: beautiful and glorious. 

949. An adverb, joined to a substantive, has some- 
times the force of an adjective. 

Glass, ib. 

Prov. iii. 25. " Be not afraid a^na nn3D of fear suddenly," 
i, e. of sudden fear. 

950. An abstract, put for a concrete, often supplies 
the place of an adjective. 

Glass, ib. can. 7. 

Gen. xlvi. S4. *^ Every shepherd is an abomination,^' i, e. 
abominable. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 341 

951 A conjunction, especially the copulative, is 
sometimes put for the relative pronoun. 
Glass, ib. can. 15. 

Isa. xxxix. 6. " The days come, and (in which) shall be carried 
to Babylon all that is in thy house." 



342 yuI^CTUATION, 



CHAP. HI. 



The Explication of Combinations of Words. 



952. It is not enough that we understand the mean- 
ing of the separate words of Scripture ; it is their 
combination into sentences that makes them expres- 
sive of sentiments. 

953. In the combinations of words into sentences, 
there are difficulties of several kinds : — difficulties in 
punctuation — in syntax — in idiom — in the meaning 
of phrases ;^difficulties arising from the grammatical 
figures — and from the rhetorical. 



SECT. L 



Punctuation, 



954. As the present punctuation of the Scriptures 
was not fixed by the sacred writers, it has no autho- 
rity any further than it is warranted by the sense 5 it 



PUNCTUATION. 343 

affords no argument for the connexion or disjunction 
of words ; and it is in some instances wrong, and in 
others doubtful. 

955. There is difficulty, either with regard to the 
nature of the points, or with regard to their place : 
the former affects the sense of a clause or sentence 
taken by itself; the latter affects the connexion of 
one with another. 

956. It depends on the nature of the point, whether 
a sentence should be read affirmatively, or interroga- 
tively ; and, according to the one or the other, the 
sense will be even contrary. 

957. Some texts are generally read affirmatively, 
which ought to have a point of interrogation. 

Gen. iv. 13. " My punishment is greater than I can bear."— 
" mine iniquity is greater than that it can be forgiven.'* 
marg. 70 — " Is mine iniquity greater than ?" &c. Wall, 
connexion. 

Gen. iv. 23, 24. " I have slain a man to my wounding, and a 
young man to my hurt." — " Have I slain," &c. — I have not. 
Onk. Menoch. sense. 

Markix. 22,23,24. The father said, « If thou canst do any- 
thing," &c. Jesus said unto him, ro si ^vvaa-xi Trt^rsvG-oti^ 
wnvTci Sv^ctrci ra ;r;c-ret;avr/.— Eng. *' If thou canst believe, 
all things are possible," &c. — ra omitted. — ro et ^vmc-on ; 
TriTTevTuif K, T, ?^. "If thou canst? Believe,*' &c. con- 
nexion. 

Knatchb. 

John V. Sr, 38. " Ye have neither heard his voice at any time, 
nor seen his shape ; and ye have not his word abiding in 
you." former clause not true, unconnected — " Have ye nev- 
er at any time heard ? &c. (alluding to his baptism) yet ye 
have not his word," &c. 



344 PUNCTUATIOjy. 

Macknight. 
John xii. 27. " What shall T say ? Father deliver me from this 
hour,'' unsuitable, there should be a point of interrogation. 
"No." "But for this cause," &c. v. 28. 
Zeger. Clar. Grot. Wall. 
1 Cor. vii. 23. " Ye are bought with a price ; be not the ser- 
vants of men." unconnected. — " Are ye bought vt^ith aprice ?" 
redeemed from slavery ? be not,*' &c. context. 
Knatchb. 

958. Some texts^ again^ are generally read inter- 
rogatively^ which ought rather to be read affirma- 
tively. 

1 Cor. V. 12, 13. " For what have I to do to judge them also that 
are without ? ovxi '^'^^^i s'^a vf^en xpivsre ; do not ye judge 
them that are within ?'* not consistent with itself, or with 
scope. — ov^r rov^ era v'A>etq k^ivsts, " Not at all. Judge ye 
them that are within ; but those which are without, God 
judgeth; and put away from among yourselves that wicked 
person.'* Knatchb. connexion. 

959. A point wrong placed occasions difficulty, by 
joining a word to a clause, or a clause to a sentence, 
to which it does not belong. 

Numb. xxi. 14. Ken. Diss. Gen. 165. John i. 3, 4. John xiii. 

31. Wh. Mill. Marsh's Michael, ch. 13. sect. 1, 2, 3, 4. 
Heb. iv. 6. *' Seeing then it remaineth that some must enter 

therein." — " Seeing then, (it is so), it remaineth (follows) 

that some," &c. Tayl. key. 234. sense. 

2 Thess. ii. 3. "Let no man deceive you, on euv fA.i} eX6y] vi 
ot.'TroTraa-io!, cr^»rev " lit. "that if there come not a falling 
away first." defective. Eng. " for that day shall not come, 
except there come," &c. sense, but not syntax. — or/, (sup. 
fV£c-Tjjx£v V. 2. fav fA.ii, &c. " that it is at hand, except there 
come," &c. Knatchb. 

1 Tim. ii. 6, 7. 1 Cor. vii. 16, 17, 35. 1 Cor. xvi. 3. Grot, 
Locke. 1 Pet. i. 13. 
Knatchb. 



syNTAX. 345 

960. It is sometimes doubtful whether one punctu- 
ation or another should be preferred, as either gives 
a good sense. 

John V. 27, 28. Mill. Wh. 

1 Cor. vii. 29. " This, I say, brethren, on o xect^oi o-yves-rosA^e- 
voi TO Ao/7roi> eo-rr Uct x,xi oi e^ivrei yvvctiKXq, ax; f^v) ex^vrjq ac-i 
— " because what remains is but a short time, that they that 
have wives, be as though they had none.*' Mill. Eras Grot. 
Knatchb. — a-vvscmstPitAsvoq' TO XoiTov ecTTi het^''^ &c. " the time is 
short. It remaineth that," ^c. Eng. easier. 

1 Cor. xi. 21. Knatchb. 



SECT. II. 



Syntax^ 

961. Languages beiijg formed by accidental usage 
there are many irregularities in the syntax of every 
language, which may, in particular instances, occasion 
difficulty, even to those who understand it well. 

962. Every language has s6me peculiarities in its 
syntax, which must occasion difficulty to those who are 
more accustomed to another language. 

963. In the language of scripture, there are diffi- 
culties arising from both these causes ; and, in the 
New Testament, there are difficulties also, from the 
introduction of Hebrew constructions into the Greek 
language. 

44 



346 SYNTAX. 

964. The removing of difliculties in syntax^ from 
the ScriptureSj both contributes to our understanding 
the precise meaning of them, and vindicates their style 
from the imputation of solecisms. 

965. The principal means of removing difficulties 
in syntax, are — exact knowledge of the original lan- 
guages, — the sense and connexion, — texts where the 
force of the construction is more determinate, — paral- 
lel places where the same sense is expressed in a diifer- 
ent form of words, — and the usage of other writers, in 
the same or a kindred language. 

966. As the repetition of a noun denotes, sometimes 
emphasis, sometimes vehemence, sometimes continu- 
ance, sometimes multitude, and sometimes distribution, 
it may be doubtful which of these is its force in a par- 
ticular passage ; it can be determined only by the sense 
and connexion ; and these cannot always determine it 
with certainty. 

Deut. XV. 20. " Thou shalt follow plV pnv justice, justrce," — 
"that which is altogether just," Eng. — or, "justice earnest- 
ly, " — or, "justice constantly." 

967. As, of two nouns in the constructed state in 
Hebrew, or, in the state of government in the New 
Testament, one is sometimes put for an adjective, and 
sometimes not; and, as the governed noun may sig- 
nify the efficient, or the instrumental cause, or the 
effect, or the material cause, or the final cause, or the 
subject or recipient, or the object, or the adjunct, of 
the thing expressed by the other noun, there must of- 



SYNTAX. 347 

ten be an ambiguity which of these relations is meant 
to be expressed ; and it should be fixed as the sense 
and scope require. 

Psal. Ixxvii. 4. " Thou holdest the watches of mine eyes.^^ — 
subst. " thou watchest over mine eyes." — ^adj. " keepest 
mine eyes watchful or waking." Eng. connexion. 

Psal. cl. 1. "Praise God in the firmament of his power.*' — if 
the latter be taken as an adj. "his powerful firmament or 
expanse,*' i. e. the effect of his power. — if the former, " on 
account of his expanded or extended power." 

Gal. iii. 14. "That we might receive Ttjv zTcayyiXiu.^ rov Trvevf^x- 
T05. — Eng. "the promise of the Spirit.*' — adj. "spiritual 
promise," Zeger. — " promised spirit," Vat. Grot. Locke. 

Eph. iv. £9. "No corrupt communication, but that which is 
good, TTpoi d/»oJa^j;v T^js xp^^^i' — Eng. *' to the use of edifying." 
this the original does not bear. — lit. " to the edifying of use 
or need," i. e. " needful edification." 

1 Thess. i. 3. " Work of faith— .labour of love — ^patience of 
hope,"—" working faith — laborious love — patient hope," 
Drus. Glass. — or, " works, the effects of faith — labours, the 
effects of l')ve — patience, of hope." 
Grot. 

Tit. ii. 13. "looking for," e^/<p«ye/ocv nj^ Jof'^j rov fjLiyctXav B-eov. — 
adj.* 'glorious appearing." Eng. Chrys. Theophylact. Jerom. 
Drus. — or, " appearing of the glory." Ambr. Erasm. Grot 
parallel places. 

968. A difficulty sometimes arises from pronouns 
referring^ not to the nearer^ but to the remoter ante- 
cedent. 

Psal. xcix. 6, 7. "Moses and Aaron among his priests, and 

Samuel among them that call upon his name : he spake 

unto them in the cloudy pillar," i. e. Moses and Aaron. 

John viii. 44. " When he speaketh a lie, he speaketh of his own. 



348 SYNTAX. 

for he is a liar^ xxi o Trarvjp AYTOY — referring to the devil, 
**ancl his father,'* Manich. ; or, to ij/eyo-xjj?, "father of himy^ 
the liar. Grot. — or, to -^ivSo^, '* father of it*^ Eng. Erasm. 
Zeger. Macknight. right, 

John vi. 50. " This is the bread which cometh down from heav- 
en.'* — not manna, v. 49 — but Christ, v. 48. 

Heb. xiii. 17. "Though he sought it {oivnjv^ earnestly with 
tears." — to the nearest antecedent y^eravoicc — " his own re- 
pentance." Clar. and perhaps Eng. — or " good effects of re- 
pentance" did not profit him. Zeger. Cast. Grot— or, "his 
father's repentance." J Capel. — or, to remoter antecedent 
£v?ioytxv, " his father"'s blessing." Glass. Gen. xxvii. 34. 

1 John V. 20. " This is the true God and eternal life." nearer 
antecedent, Christ — remoter, the Father. 

Mark iii. 21. " For they said, on elea-tT)' — nearest antecedent, 
Jesus, — he is mad," Eng. unbecoming, no occasion given, 
— remoter antecedent e%A«5, " it is beside itself." sense, con- 
nexion. Matth. xii. 23. elia-r(x,vTo, 

Knatchb. Macknight. 

969. A pronoun sometimes refers, not to any thing 
going before^ but to some noun following after. 

Numb. xxiv. 17. " I shall see him (or, it) but not now; I shall 
behold him (or, it) but not nigh." — star and sceptre. 

Psal. Ixxxvii. 1. " His (or, its) foundation is in the holy moun- 
tain." — Zion, V. 2. 

Matth. xvii. 18. "Jesus rebuked /im." whom ? "the demon 
came out of him." 

970. When two verbs are joined together by a co- 
pulative, the former of them is sometimes not de- 
signed to ajQirm, but has merely the force of a par- 
ticiple. 

Matth xi. 25. " I thank thee — ^because thou hast hid these 
things from the wise and prudent, and hast revealed them 
unto babes,-' — having hid. 



IDIOM. 340 



SECT. in. 

Idiom. 

971. Every peculiarity in the structure of a lan- 
guage, is called an idiom ; and, therefore, many ob 
servations which truly regard the idioms of the Scrip- 
ture language, have been already made under other 
heads ; but, there are some observations which still re- 
main to be made. 

972. An idiom, in the sense in which we are now 
to consider it, is, when a number of words combined, 
acquire, from arbitrary usage, a sense which could not 
be collected from the known meaning of the separate 
words. 

973. Some nouns, when joined with, or governing, 
other nouns, form an idiomatical expression, in which 
their force is not always the same. 

974. C^^K, and other words, signifying a man, are 
often idiomatically used in this manner, even sometimes 
when a man is not intended ; and that in different sig- 
nifications in different instances, which must be deter- 
mined by the sense. 

975. Sometimes, it expresses the subject, whose 
adjunct is signified by the other noun, and denotes a 
person eminent for that. 



350 IDIOM. 

1 Sam. xvi. 18. HDhSd 12?*N " a man of war," a great warrior — 
and nxn jy'K " a man of form" — a beautiful person. 

2 Sam. xvi. 7. fehimei says, "Come forth B-'^xi tZJ'mn iy*X 
Sjr'S:jn thou man of bloodwS, and thou man of Belial." — 
bloody and worthless man. 

1 Kings, ii. 26. Solomon says to Abiathar, " thou art r\1D Wi^ 

a man of death." — worthy of death. 

Isa. liii. 3. nnj^DD ts^'X " a man of sorrows'" — a suflfering man. 
Ps. cxix. 24. " Thy testimonies are 'nx;? ^iyj« the men of my 

counsel." — my counsellors. 

976. Sometimes, on the contrary, it expresses the 
adjunct, whose subject is expressed by the other noun. 

Gen. ix. 20. " Noah was nm^^n ty^K a man of the earth." — 
who cultivated the earth. 

977. Sometimes, it denotes the ei&cient cause, whose 
effect or action is expressed by the other noun. 

Judg. xii. 2. Jephthah says, " I and my people were 3'*1 Wii 
a man of strife with the children of Ammon" — at strife. 

1 Sam. xvii. 4. Goliah is called HD'J^n ty'N a man of middles 
— a champion, who comes between the two camps to chal- 
lenge. 

Isa. xlvi. 11, "I am God — calling a ravenous bird from the 
east, *n2f;r U'''N the man of my counsel from a far country" — 
who executeth my counsel. 

978. Sometimes again, it denotes the effect, or what 
some way or other proceeds from the person expressed 
by the other noun. 

tiD'nSx \y^i^ and cevSpaTog rtv B-edv^ " a man of God"— inspired 
by God, or who teaches his word. 

979. The words Sr^S, ^Mord, master,'^ and nSi^^l 



IDIOM. 331 

^^ mistressj " similarly construed, form an idiomatical 
expression, very like to the former in its powers. 

980. It signifies the possessor of a thing expressed 
by the other noun. 

1 Sam. xxviii. 7. The witch of Endor D1X nS^:} " the mistress 
of a familiar spirit." 

2 Kings i. 8. Ahaziah's messengers describe the prophet as 
'^^^ bv^ " a lord of hair" — a hairy man. 

Prov. i. 17. " In vain the net is spread in sight of any *]JD V:3 
lord of a wing^^ — bird. 

981. It signifies an inhabitant of the place, express- 
ed by the other noun. 

Numb, xxi. 28. " It hath consumed — mD3 'Vl the lords of 
the high places of Arnon" — the inhabitants. 

982. It signifies the subject of that quality or thing 
which is expressed by the other noun. 

Gen. xiv. 13. It is said of Mamre, Eshcol, and Aner, " These 
were nn3 'hp^ lords of covenant with Abram" — confederate. 

983. In analogy to this signification, it denotes a 
person any how addicted to what is expressed by the 
other noun. 

Gen. xxxvii. 19. "Behold niD^nn hy:} this lord (or master) of 

dreams"— dreamer. 
Prov. xviii. 9. " He that is slothful, is brother n'nwn hp^h to 

a master of waste^^ — a waster. Eng. " a great waster," as 

if emphatical, but is not. 

984. p and D^ and iiog^ and the like, joined with 
another noun, express almost any relation to the thing 



352 IDIOM. 

signified by it, and are used of inanimate things, as 
well as of persons. 

S;?'S3 'J3, " Sons of Belial or of wickedness" — wicked per- 
sons. S^n '3:3. " sons of strength" — strong men, *0< uioi rov 
(paroq, « sons of the light" — thej who enjoy religious knowl- 
edge. *Y<fl; U7ret6eicci, " sons of disobedience" — disobedient. 
TsKvet u'^cifcoijg, " sons of obedience"— obedient. niD p, " a 
son of death" — either, worthy of death — or, appointed to 
death. 'Y/«5 yesv^m, " a son of gehenna" — ei-?r6>Xeietg, " of per- 
dition" — a^yjj5, " of wrath" — Ketra^ecg, " of malediction" — 
eipuviji, " of peace" — worthy of these. " Sons of a place"^ 
its inhabitants. Psal. cxlix. 2. " Sons of Zion." Ezra ii. 1. 
" of the province." Isa. xi. 14. " of the east." Gen. xvii. 1. 
Abram is called " the son of 99 years" — 99 years old. 
Eccl. xii. 4. " Daughters of music" — sonorous things. 
Matth. viii. 12. " Sons of the kingdom" — heirs of it. Job 
xli. 19. " Sons of the bow" — Lam. iii. 13. "of the quiver"-— 
arrows. Isa. xxi. 10. " Sons of the floor" — corn. 

985. Some words, joined with other words, are re- 
dundant, adding nothing to the sense of these, but 
forming merely an idiomatical expression. 

Q'J3, TTpocraTTov. Gen. i. 2. "the face of the deep." Gen. 
xxiii. 3. "Abraham stood up from upon the face of his 
dead." 1 Sam. siv. 25. " Honey upon the face of the 
field." Luke xxi. 35. " On the face of the whole earth." 

712, Gen. xliii. 7. " We answered him according to the mouth 
of these words." Numb. xxvi. 56. " According to the 
mouth of the lot shall the possession be divided." Prov 
xxii. 6. " Train up a child according to the month of his 
way." 

CZJty. " The wmiie of God"-^God. occurs often. Rev. xi. 13. 
" Were slain 7000 names of men.'* 

"iDi. Job. xli. 12. " I will not conceal the word of his pWer." 
Psal. Ixv. 3. " Words of iniquities prevail against me." 



IDIOM. 353 

" In the midst— in the heart," means only in or among. Gen. 
xlv 6. " Famine in the midst of the land." Matth. xii. 40. 
" So shall the Son of man be three days and three nights 
in the heart of the earth." no proof of descent into hell. 
Bellarm. Grot. Glass. Macknight. 

986. The expression of the superlative^ by joining 
any of the names of God to an adjective, is idiomati- 
cal ; and, as this junction is not always intended to 
form a superlative, it may sometimes produce ambi- 
guity. 

2 Cor. X. 4. " The weapons of our warfare are Swurct no B-eo) 
to the pulling down of strong holds." — idiom. " very power- 
ful." Glass. Knatchb. Macknight. — lit. "mighty through 
God." Eng. Eras. Vat. Cast. Zeger. Grot. Locke. — right. 

2 Cor. xi. 2. ZnXa yxp vf^a^ B-sev (l^viXa lit. " I am jealous over 
you with a godly jealousy." Eng. Eras Vat. Grot. Locke. 
— idiom. " 1 love you with an exceeding zeal." Knatchb. 
preferable. 

Prov. XX. sr. "The Spirit of man is the candle (lamp) of th€ 
Lord.^^ — idiom. " a great or piercing light." Knatchb. in 
2 Cor. X. 4 connexion, v. 26. — gives a reason for what is 
there said, " a wise king scattereth the wicked ;" for the 
spirit of a man which he possesses, is very piercing. 

987. ^*1^^, TTostfTOTOzogr is sometimes used literally 
for '' first-born/' and sometimes, idiomatically, to 
form a superlative ; whence it may become ambigu- 
ous in which of these ways it is used in a particular 
text. 
Col. i. 15. n^coToTOKog Txcry.t; TtriTiox;, "the first-begotten of 
every creature.'' Arians, therefore one of the creatures.— 
TTfas-oroKOiy " first begetter " Eras. Zeger suits not the 
scope. — for Tsx>^ei<i ti-^o, "begotten before all creation." 
Casaub. Vat. Eras. Zeger.-— idiom, "prince, lord, chief, 
45 



S54 IDIOM. 

most excellent." — "the Lord of the whole creation." Drus 
Cam. Macknight, scope 

988. A noun repeated^ and governed by different 
prepositions, forms an idiomatical expression, denot- 
ing continuance and increase. 

Ps. Ixxxiv. 7. " They go frOin strength to strength." — con- 
tinually become stronger. 

Ps. cxliv. 13. " Our garners yielding from store to store." — 
continual plenty. 

Jer. ix. 2. " Thev proceed from evil to evil." — grow continually 
worse. 

Rom. i. 17. " The rigliteausness of God revealed from faith to 
faith." — from first to last by faith, and that a progressive 
and improving faith. 

989. Idioms which, when translated into another 
language, appear to have in it a peculiar emphasis, 
have none in the original, and should not be under- 
stood as having any. 

990. An idiom of one language translated literally 
into another, would sometimes express the opposite of 
the idea intended. 

Psal. cxliii. 2. " Every man living shall not be justifi.ed." — 

no man. 
Prov. xxii. 24. " Make no friendship with «^N h^:} a master of 

anger,^^ i. e. angry, given to anger. In English, it would 

be. " one who has the command of his passion." 
Ch. xxiii. 2. "Put a knife to thy throat, if thou be ti'SJ Sp 

ft master of appetite,^*— -g\\ en to it. In Eng. the reverse. 
Gal ii. 6. " Those who seemed to be something." — were of 

high reputation. 



PHRASES. 555 



SECT. IV. 



Phrases, 

991. There is sometimes a difficulty in phrases, 
not arising from either the ambiguity or obscurity of 
a single word, or from any grammatical irregularity 
in the combination of the words, or from idiom. 

992. A difficulty sometimes arises from the meaning 
of a particular word being somewhat altered by the 
words with which it is joined, or by the manner in 
which it is joined with them. 

. Acts xviii. 5. STNEIXETO TO HNEYMATI o n«yAo5.— usually 
« constrain." — " was pressed in spirity^ Eng. — " constrained 
by the Holy Spirit," agitated, carried out of himself, " to 
testify to the Jews that Jesus is the Christ." Grot. — " tes- 
tified with reluctance," foreseeing that it would be in vain. 
Eras. — a phrase taken altogether, " had an earnest mind to 
testify." Knatchb. teneri desiderio, 

John i. 16, ''Outof his fulness we have received jcxi x'^piv 
ecvTt %otf>/r«5 — cannot be grace in lieu of, or, instead of, 
i. e. in return for grace. — kx) omitted in Pers. Arab. Ethiop. 
versions ; and uvn %«/5/r«5 supposed an interpolation. Wall, 
without evidence. — " even the grace of the gospel instead of 
that of the law," v. 17. Erasm. Cast. Zeger. Scaliger.— 
" grace on account of the grace of Christ " Vat. Grot. — 
^* grace ztjooM (avr/ for c^/) grace," abundance. Camer.— 
" even grace for his grace." Clarke. Campbell, ambiguity 
from unusual ness. 



356 PHRASES. 

993. A dilliculty in a phrase sometimes arises from 
its implying an allusion to some opinions, sentiments, 

or customs. 

• 

1IdSu% Aim the interval between jubilees. — hence «<6»vs5 and 
sometimes ctiav^ the whole duration of the Mosaic dispensa- 
tion. — hence the phrases c4^o ro)^ ctimm, not, " from the 
beginning oithe worldy^^ Eng. — but " the ages," during the 
Mosaic dispensation. — Trpo atmrn, or, xp'^^^^ uiavtm, " before 
the Jewish dispensation.*'— ««fa>v oureg, or « wv earn, the Jew- 
ish dispensation, — and ccim ^£AA&»c, the Christian. 
Locke. 

994. There are propositions, in which either term 
may be the subject or predicate, and it may admit a 
doubt which is one or the other ; it is to be deter- 
mined by the sense. 

Isa. xviii. 5. Ixiii. 8, 9. Ixv. 22, 23. Lowth. Acts iii. 21. Glass. 

995. In some cases, it is doubtful to what words in 
a sentence, other words in it should be joined. 

Luke vii. SO. Tjjv /SovAjjv tov S-sov aderuTctv EIS *EAYTOYS — join- 
ed with TjSsTiiirotv^ " rejected the counsel of God against 
themselves," Eng. Vat. Zeger. but unexampled, — joined in 
the same way, £/« for gv, " within themselves," Eras, unusual, 
he is speaking of their open conduct. — joined with fiovMVj 
^* iawords themselves." 
Grot. Knatchb. 



GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. 357 



SECT. V. 



The Grammatical Figures. 

996. The grammatical figures are — ellipsis, — pleon- 
asm, — enallage, — hypallage, — and metathesis. These 
take place in all languages, but prevail most in the 
simplest ; and, consequently, are very frequent in He- 
brew, and in the hellenistical Greek. 

997. 1. There is sometimes an ellipsis of some- 
thing which is not at all in the text, but must be sup- 
plied by the sense, — either of a word or of a clause. 

998. As to the former, there is an ellipsis of the no- 
minative before the verb ; of the accusative after it ; 
of the adjective ; of the substantive ; of the governing 
noun, especially when expressive of relation ; of the 
verb in a sentence, particularly of the verb of exist- 
ence ; of a verb governing the infinitive ; of the infin- 
itive governed; of the participle ; of the article ; of 
the antecedent, of the relative, or of both ; of adverbs 
of comparison, or similitude ; of some of the preposi- 
tions ; of conjunctions: from all which, obscurity, or 
ambiguity, must, in some instances, arise. 

999. There is, sometimes, likewise, a total ellipsis 
of several words, of part of a clause or even of a whole 
clause, which, however, the structure of the sentence, 



358 GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. 

or the sense, aifords the means of supplying ; as, of 
one of the members of connected propositions, or of 
comparisons. 

1000. 2. There is an elhpsis of a word, or clause, 
which is not totally wanting, but may be gathered from 
some other part of the discourse. 

1001. Sometimes, what ought to be taken from 
another part of the discourse, is not expressed in that 
part, but only implied in a conjugate, a contrary, or 
an analogous word. 

1002. Sometimes, what ought to be supplied is ex- 
pressed, bnt in a different member, either a preceding 
or a subsequent, or partly in the one and partly in 
the other ; and must be repeated from that, in order 
to complete the sense. 

1003. Pleonasm is of two kinds ; the first, when a 
word is wholly redundant ; the second, when there 
is a repetition, either of the same words, or of the 
same sense, whether in synonymous expressions, or 
otherways. 

1004. Enallage often affects whole sentences, or 
periods ; as, when sometimes the second, and some- 
times the third, person, is used concerning the same 
subjects in the same discourse, — or, when the same 
persons are sometimes spoken of in the singular, and 
sometimes in the plural number, — or, when there is a 
change of tenses, or of cases, or of modes^ in the 
same period. ^ 



GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. ^59 

1005. Hypallage is an inversion of words, by which 
that is attributed to one thing, which belongs not 
properly to it, but to another thing. 

Psal. cxxxix. 24. "See if there be any wicked way in me." — 

if 1 be walking in any wicked way. 
Matth. viii. 3. " His leprosy was cleansed" — he was cleansed 

from it. 

1006. Metathesis, or synchysis, is a transposition 
of words, or clauses, out of their natural order. 

J007. There is often a transposition of single words, 
which, if not attended to, may occasion a mistake of 
the sense. 

2 Tim. ii. 6. roi xoTrtavro!. yscttpyov hi w^arov ra^ KocpTrav f^tvcc- 
?ioifjLQoe.vstv^ " the husbandman that laboureth, must be first 
partaker of the fruits," Eng — for KOTrimTu, tt^mtov, "the 
husbandman first labouring, must be partaker,'* &c. 

Rev. xiii. 8. ** Whose names are not written" sv m (^iQ^a ms 

^6>jj5 rov cc^viov sT^ecyf^evov cuTro KctTciQeXiji Koa-f^ov, in " the book 

of life of the Lamb slain from the foundation of the world'' 
—tor yey^ocTTTect a.'^o KotraQoXri Kovf^ov, " written from the 
foundation of the world." Knatchb. 

1008. Sometimes, the subject and the predicate of 
a proposition are transposed. 

John iv. 24. Uvevf^ec ©f«5. 

1 Tim. vi. 4. No^tt,ovrav Tro^ic-fAov etvai rt^v evTs^siocv — Eng, 
"^upposing that gain is godliness" — obscure; metath, 
"supposing that godliness is a trade to gain by," Arab. 
Ethiop. Knatchb. 

1009. There is a transposition of clauses, which oc- 
oasions diiliculty till they be restored to their natural 



360 RHETORICAL FIGURES. 

order ; and, sometimes, there is a transposition of whole 
sentences or periods. 

1010. Before we admit any of the grammatical fig- 
ures in a passage, we should be certain that we have 
the true reading ; for, in several instances, the appear- 
ance of them arises only from a false reading. 

101 1 . We should neither reject grammatical figures 
altogether, nor recur to them without necessity ; but, 
suppose them only when the sense requires them, or 
the connexion points them out : and, admit only such 
as are agreeable to the nature of the language, and 
the usage of Scripture, or of other writers in the lan- 
guage. 



SECT. VL 

The Rhetorical Figures, 

1012. Rhetorical Figures are ornaments of dis- 
course ; and they are, likewise, occasions of difliculty. 
In both views, they are objects of criticism ; but, to re- 
move the difficulties occasioned by them, is more mate- 
rial, than to point out the beauties which they pro- 
duce. 

1013. They are, either Tropes, which affect and 
change the signification of the words employed ; br, 
Figures, which only add force or beauty to the expres- 
sion. 



RHETORICAL FIGURES. 361 

1014. 1. The simplest tropes occasion difficulty, 
chiefly with respect to the signification of separate 
words, which have been considered already ; but there 
are others, which throw difficulty into whole sentences 
or periods. 

1015. If all languages used the same tropes for ex- 
pressing the same ideas, there would be in Scripture 
no peculiar difficulties arising from them ; but it uses 
quite a different set of tropes from those used by the 
Greeks, Romans, and moderns ; hence, many difficul- 
ties, from an unusual dialect. 

1016. Prosopopeia, which is a species of metaphor, 
is frequent in Scripture, and produces great vivacity 5 
but, sometimes, also, occasions obscurity. 

1017. Antiphrasis, or irony, turns words to a signi- 
fication opposite to their proper meaning, which the 
sense or connexion points out. 

Gen. iii. 22. " The man is become as one of us, to know good 
anp evil." 

1 Kings xviii. 27. " Cry aloud ; for he is a god, either he is 
talking," &c. 

Ecc. xi. 9. " Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth," &c. 

1018. Catachresis is a harshness or violence of any 
of the tropes, of which there are several instances in 
Scripture. 

2 Sam. xxiii- \7. " Is not this the blood of the men that went 
hi jeopardy of their lives ?*' a harsh metonymy. 

46 



362 RHETORICAL FIGURES. 

Matth. xii. 5. " The priests in the temple profane the sab- 
bath." 

Mark vii. 21, 22. "Out of the heart proceedeth— .on evil eye*^ 
— env}^ of which it is the sign. 



1019. Hyperbole, whether consisting in bold tropes/ 
exaggerated comparisons/ impossible suppositions/ 
&c. gives an appearance of falsehood ; to avoid which, 
the sense, not the expression, must be regarded. 

^ " Heaven," for great height or exaltation. " Hell," great 
depth or depression. " Rivers of oil," abundance of good 
things. Gal. iv. 15. "Ye would have plucked out your 
own eyes, and have given them to me." 

2 Gen. xiii. 16, "I will make thy seed as the dust of the 
earth" — very numerous. Job. vi. 3. " Grief heavier than 
the sand of the sea." 

3 Prov. xxvii. 22. " Bray a fool in *» mortar, yet will not his 

foolishness depart from him." Matth. xvi. 26. " If he 
shall gain the wliole world," &c. John xxi. 25, " The 
world itself could not contain the books that should be 
written." 

1020. Allegory is a continued trope, especially a 
continued metaphor, containing a hidden sense, differ- 
ent from what the words imply, in their plain and 
literal signification. 

1021. It is sometimes doubtful whether a passage 
be allegorical or not. 

History of the Fall. Sentence on the serpent. 

1022. When a passage is known to be allegorical, 
it is sometimes diflicult to discover the meaning of it, 
as it generally introduces some degree of obscurity. 



RHETORICAL FIGURES. 363 

1023. Allegory sometimes arises from the continua- 
tion of the same image, through the whole description 
of a subject. 

Prov. ix. 1 — 6. " Wisdom hath builded her house," &c. 
Parables. 

1024. Sometimes it arises from describing the dif- 
ferent circumstances of the subject, by different images 
in succession. 

Eccl. xii. 2, &c. 

1025. When an allegory becomes very obscure, it 
is what the Scripture calls a dark saying, an enigma, 
or an enigmatical discourse. 

Sampson's riddle. Ezekiel's descriptions. 

1026. 2. Figures. Epizeuxis, or the continued rep- 
etition of the same word, or combination of words, is 
merely a figure expressive of earnestness, and is not a 
foundation of argument for points of doctrine. 

Isa. vi. 3. " Holy, holy, holy"— no argument for the Trinity. 

1027. Antanaclasis, by which the same w^ord is used 
in different senses in the same passage, generally pro- 
duces some degree of difficulty. 

Matth. xxvi. 29. « I will not drink of the product of the vine, 
(lit.) till I drink it new," &c.— joys of heaven. 

Rom. ix. 6 « They are not all Israel, which are of Israel. 

2 Cor. V. 21. « He hath made him to be sin for us (sin-offering) 
who knew no sirz." 

1028. Prolepsis, or occupation, anticipating and an- 
swering an objection, occasions considerable difficulty 



364 RHETORICAL FIGURES. 

when it is covert, removing the objection, without stat- 
ing it. 

This figure frequent in Paul's writings. 

1029. Permission, or yielding to a person what he 
claims, may occasion difficulty, as that either may, or 
may not, truly belong to him. 

1030. Metastasis is transferring to one person what 
belongs to another ; as, speaking of one's self, or of an 
imaginary person, what is intended of another real 
person. This often occasions difficulty, particularly in 
PauPs writings, who, speaking in the first person, 
means sometimes himself, sometimes any Christian^ 
sometimes a Jew, and sometimes any man. 

Locke, Pref. 

1031. Proverbs and proverbial phrases, answering 
to the rhetorical figures called yvcoi^oci and^^sententise," 
are frequent in Scripture, and generally attended with 
some difficulty. 

1032. We must not explain them strictly, or seek 
for an application of them, in all their circumstances, 
to the subject on which they are employed ; but, being 
intended to set that subject in one striking point of view, 
we must discover what this point is, by the use of them 
in other places, or other writers, or by the sense and 
connexion. 

1033. Some of them are sentiments expressed in 
proper terms, which, on account of their force, beauty, 
or conciseness, have become general maxims ; and the 



RHETORICAL FIGURES. 365 

only difficulty is to determincj with what limitations 
they must be understood in a particular passage. 

" The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 
" The disciple is not above his master" — cannot expect better 
treatment, Matth. x. 24. Luke vi. 40. John xv. 20, — 
Should not grudge the same offices, John xiii. 16. 

1034. Some proverbial expressions consist in an ex- 
plicit comparison, and become difficult only when they 
imply remote or obscure allusions. 

Gen. X. 9. " Even as Nimrod, the mighty hunter, before the 
Lord." 

1035. But most proverbs are expressed tropically, 
in metaphor, metonymy, or synecdoche ; and this 
manner of expression both gives them their force and 
beauty, and occasions such difficulty as naturally arises 
from these tropes. 

1 Sam. X. 12. " Is Saul also among the prophets''" sjnec. 

Jer. xxxi. 29. " The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the 
children's teeth are set on edge." 

Deut. XXV. 4. " Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth 
out the corn" — take care of those who serve us. 

Luke iv. 23. " Physician, Hieal thyself" — more solicitous for 
strangers, than for connexions. 

Matth. vii. 3, &c. " Why beholdest thou the mote that is in 
thy brother's eye, but considerest not the beam that is in 
thine own eye ?" &c. — blind to one's own faults, quick- 
sighted to other men's, v. 6. 

Matth. xix. 24. " Easier for a camel to go through the eye of 

a needle," &c.— rare, difficult, impossible. 
Matth. xxiii. 24. xxiv. 28. 



366 DIFFICULTIES IN THE 



CHAP. IV. 



Difficulties in the Circumstances relating to the 
Books of Scripture. 



1036. It is not sufficient^ that we understand the 
several words employed^ and the manner of their com- 
bination into sentences and propositions ; it is neces- 
sary, also, that we know how sentences and propositions 
are connected in periods and discourses, and be able 
to judge of a composition as a whole; and in this, 
there is often considerable difficulty, and that of se- 
veral kinds. 



SECT. I. 



Difficulties in the Connexion of particular parts, 

1037. From difficulties in the combination of words^ 
already considered, we pass naturally to such diffi- 
culties as regard the connexion of the particular 
parts ; and these arise from many different causes. 



CONNEXION OF PARTICULAR PARTS. 367 

1038. 1. There is sometimes a difliculty in deter- 
mining whether a word belongs to one sentence, or to 
another, which affects the connexion of different sen- 
tences or propositions. 

1039. The Scriptures are, at present, divided into 
verses ; there were ancient divisions of the Scripture 
into verses, but very different from the present, which^ 
both in the Old Testament and the New, is modern, 
and merely of human invention. 

1040. If a verse always contains a complete sense, 
this division will direct us to the real connexion of 
Scripture ; if not, it will perplex the connexion. 

1041. Whenever, therefore, a difficulty can be re- 
moved, or the sense cleared, by altering the present 
division into verses, the alteration may be made with- 
out scruple. 

1042. The verses are sometimes divided, so as to 
separate words into different sentences, vs^hich ought 
to be joined in the same sentence. 

Ps. xcv. 7. " The sheep of his hand, to-day if ye will hear his 
voice ;•* — but Heb. iii. 7, 8. ** To-day, if ye will hear his 
voice, harden not your hearts," &c. 

John vii. 21, 22. Ev tpyov ^/TroitiTec, k»i ^etvrsi B-otvf^ce^sTs, Aiec 
rovTo Masrrti hS'aixsv vi^iv tjjv Tre^trofA-'K^, &C, all editions, except 
Griesbach's. '* Moses therefore," &c. Wherefore ? — but 
5ot&,M,s*^erf hu rovTo. Ma;t3j$, &c. " wonder because of it.*' 
Theophyl. Casaub. Knatchb. Macknight. 

Gal. iv. 18, 19. Locke. 



368 DIFFICULTIES IN THE 

1043. This division, by breaking the Scripture into 
small parts, often obstructs our attending to, or per- 
ceiving, the connexion and dependence of the several 
sentences, and how one of them is explained, or limit- 
ed, by others with which it is joined. 

1044. It would, therefore, be an advantage, that 
the Scriptures were published without any breaks, and 
the verses only marked on the margin, for facility in 
references : at any rate, we should, as much as possi- 
ble, read them as if they were thus printed. 

1045. 2. Difficulties in connexion often arise from 
ambiguity in the signification of the connective par- 
ticles, which is very great in the Hebrew language, 
and in the New Testament, where the Greek con- 
junctions are used after the manner of the Hebrew. 

1046. The meaning affixed to a conjunction in any 
passage, must be some one of those which it really has 
in the language. 

1047. It is seldom, if ever, necessary to give a 
conjunction a sense, in one passage of Scripture, which 
it has not, in some other passage of Scripture ; at least, 
it is a confirmation of the sense put upon it in one 
place, that it has it in other texts. 

1048. For fixing the signification of a Greek con- 
junction in the New Testament, the usage of the cor- 
respondent Hebrew one has as great authority, as the 
usage of Greek writers. 



CONNEXION OF PARTICULAR PAKTS. 369 

1049. Of the acknowledged significations of a con- 
nective particle, that is to be adopted in a particular 
passage, which best suits the sense and scope of the 
passage. 

1050. 3. Difficulty in connexion sometimes arises 
from the interposition of parentheses, on account of 
which, clauses and sentences, which stand at some 
distance, are, notwithstanding, to be joined together. 

Locke, Pref. 

1051. It is only by careful attention to the sense, 
that this kind of difficulty can be removed ; and, it is 
often not easy to determine whether a parenthesis 
should be supposed, or not. 

Heb. vi. 1,2,3. "Therefore, leaving the principles of the 
doctrine of Christ, let us go on unto perfection, not laying 
again the foundation of repentance," &c.— ** let us (not 
laying again the foundation) go on unto the perfection of 
repentance," &c. Knatchb. connexion ; other texts. 

1052. 4. Difficulty in connexion sometimes arises 
from a dialogue being carried on covertly, without 
marking the speakers, or distinguishing what is said by 
each of them. Without attending to this, what is 
only a plausible objection, introduced in order to be 
confuted, may be mistaken for the sentiment of an in- 
spired writer. 

1053. Attention to the whole run and scope of the 
passage, as well as to the Scripture phraseology, and 
to other texts, is sometimes necessary, for discovering 
and tracing out the dialogue. 

47 



370 DIFFICULTIES IN THE 

Ecclesiasies. Rom. iii. and iv. Dialogue between Paul and 

the unbelieving Jews. Locke. Taylor. 
Isa. Hi. 13. liii. liv. Dialogue between God, the prophet, 

and the unbelieving Jews. 
Ps. xxiv. XV. XX. civ. 

1054. 5. Difficulties in connexion sometimes arise 
from something being left out^ which we must supply, 
in order to perceive it ; which may, perhaps, be sup- 
plied in different ways ; and, according as it is sup- 
plied in one way or another, will make the connexion 
appear different. 

1055. In an argument, the principles or premises 
are sometimes laid down, but the conclusion is left to 
be supplied ; and yet, what follows has a reference to 
that conclusion, and cannot be understood without 
supplying it. 

Rom. iii. 22, 23, 24. " All have sinned, and come short of 
the glory of God, [consequently, none can be justified by 
works, V. 20.] being justified freely by his grace," &c. i. e, 
but whoever is justified, whether Jew or Gentile, must be 
justified, &c. 

1056. Sometimes, one step in an argument, or 

chain of reasoning, is omitted, and must be supplied 

either from the tenor of the discourse, or by common 

understanding. 

Rom. viii. 17. " Heirs of Christ, if we suffer with him" — 
only on this condition ; v. 18. " for I reckon," &c. 

1057. Something is often said, for preventing or 
removing an objection, which has not been at all pro- 
posed ; and cannot be rightly understood, without our 
conceiving what that objection was. 



CONNEXION OF PARTICULAR PARTS. 371 

,Matth. iv. 5, &c. John Hi. Discourse with Nicodemua. Grot, 
Macknight. Rom. ix. 6, &c. Taylor. 

1058. 6. DijBiculty in connexion sometimes arises 
from an abrupt transition from one subject to another, 
putting us in danger of confounding together, things 
that are really different. 

Abruptness in history — events different, even distant, often 
joined — owing to brevity and inartificial manner. 

Great abruptness in prophecy. 

Isa. vii. 13, 14, 15. "Behold! the virgin shall conceive ami 
bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel ; milk and 
honey shall he eat, till he know to refuse the evil, and choose 
the good." — Messiah ; addressed to the whole house of 
David. — V. 16. "But, before this child shall know to refuse 
the evil, and choose the good, the land that thou abhorrest 
shall be forsaken of both her kings'* — of Shearjashub, Isaiah's 
son ; addressed to Ahaz. 
Kennicott, Sermon. 

1059. 7. Sometimes, it is difficult to perceive 
what purpose a sentence or member is intended to 
answer ; as, whether it be a point to be illustrated, 
or a part of the illustration ; whether a principle 
argued from, an argument employed, or an inference 
deduced. 

John viii. 25. " What art thou ? and Jesus said unto them, 
r?jv etpx>3v ort koh XocXm vf^iv. — 1. Some answer to their question 
— "Even the same that I said unto you from the beginning," 
Eng. — "The beginning, because (conjunct.) I also speak unto 
you" — or "which (pronoun) I also say unto you." Aug. 
Cyril. Ambr. Zeger. — " First, (adverb) I am that which I 
also say unto you" viz. " the light of the world,*' Grot. ; or 
" I am from above," v. 23. Erasm. but the verb is future. — 
2. Others, not an answer to their questiou, but beginning of 



372 DIFFICULTIES IN THE 

an admonition before answering it, connected with what fol- 
lows. — *' First, because (conjunct.) also I will speak to you, I 
have many things to speak and judge of concerning you"— 
or, " First, that which (pronoun) I also (over and above 
answering your question) will say unto you, I have," &c. — 
" Before answering your question, I have many things to 
find fault with in you." This he does, and the answer is 
given only, v. 42. " I proceeded forth and came from God," 
&c. Erasm. Clar. Knatchb. 

1060. 8. Sometimes, it is difficult to fix the pre- 
cise member with which a particular sentence ought 
to be connected. 

1061. In some cases, the difficulty lies in reconcil- 
ing the connexion to the grammatical construction of 
the passage. 

1062. If the sense absolutely require a particular 
connexion, it ought to be admitted, though it cannot 
be reconciled to the strictness of syntax. 

1063. If the sense admit different connexions, that 
should be preferred which is most agreeable to the 
regular structure of the language, though otherwise 
it would not be the most obvious. 

Phil. i. 30. Toy XV76V otymcc £%ovrf5, " having the same conflict 

which ye saw in me"— commonly connected with i/f^iv, v. 29. 

*' unto you it is given to suffer for his sake" — irregular ; 

enal. Bez. Grot. — better with ^oXiTsvea-h or oti o-Tmere, v. 27. 

"That ye stand fast — having the same conflict." Knatchb. 
Eph. ii. 1, &c. Locke. Knatchb. 

1064. If one connexion seems to violate the syntax, 
and another to violate the sense almost equally, the 
preference should be determined by the general man- 
ner of the writer, or of the Scripture. 



CONNEXION OF PARTICULAR PARTS. 373 

1065. In other cases, the difficulty of determining 
with what a particular part should be connected, arises 
not from any thing in the grammatical construction, 
but regards, solely, the sense. 

1066. An argument sometimes appears obscure or 
difficult, from its not being clear what is the precise 
point that it is intended to prove. 

2 Pet. i. 16 — 19. " A more sure word of prophecy " — Some, 
for proving the truth of the gospel ; surer than fables, v. 16. 
not than the transfiguration, v. 17. 18. forced. Chandler. 
Others, for proving Christ's coming to judgment, v. 16. surer 
than the transfiguration, a directer proof. Sherlock on 
Proph. 

1067. It is, sometimes, plain that a particular pas- 
sage is an inference, when yet it is not clear what is 
the precise principle or position from which the infer- 
ence is drawn. 

Phil. iii. 15. "Let us, therefore, as many as be perfect, be 
thus minded," &c. — Some, with v. IS, 14. " forgetting 
things behind — I press" — do jou the same. Zeger. — Some, 
with beginning v. 13. "I count not myself to have appre- 
hended." — Some, with v. 10. his desiring fellowship of 
Christ's sufferings, Knatchb. — Some, with v. 9. " not having 
my own righteousness, which is of the law, but that which 
is through faith of Christ" — Vat. awkward in the middle of 
his account of himself; — rather, wliich gives the same sense, 
with V. 3. "we are the circumcision, which worship God in 
the spirit, and rejoice in Christ Jesus, and have no confi- 
dence in the flesh." Grot. 

1068. Sometimes, there is a difficulty in perceiving 
how an inference follows from, and is supported by, 
the principle or position from which it is deduced. 



374 PLAN AND DISTRIBUTION. 



SECT. II. 



Difficulties in Plan and Distribution. 



1069. There is often considerable difficulty in 
discovering the plan and distribution of a book of 
Scripture. 

1070. 1. There is difficulty in distinguishing what 
are the different members into which a book ought 
naturally to be divided. 

1071. The Jews have long been in use of distin- 
guishing the Old Testament into large divisions, or 
sections, one of which was read every Sabbath in the 
synagogues. The New Testament, also, was early 
divided into »i<paXot.tu? or chapters, probably with no 
other view than to facilitate references. 

1072. The present division into chapters is different 
from these ; we are apt to suppose that it is made 
according to the sense ; but, this not being the case, 
it obstructs our perceiving the real plan of a book. 

Gen. ii. 1, 2, 3. improperly separated from ch. i. 
Vulg, joins Ps. ix. and x. and divides Ps. cxlvii into two. 
Ps. xlii. and xliii. originally one. Structure. 7 MSS. Kennic. 
Remarks. 



PLAN AND DISTRIBUTION. 375 

Rom. V. 1. from ch. iv. Rom. viii. 1. from ch. vii. Rom. xv. 
1 — 13. from ch. xiv. 1 Cor. iv. 21. from ch. v. 1 Cor. xi. 
1. from ch. x. 2 Cor. iv. 1 — 6, from ch. iii. 2 Cor. v. 1. from 
ch. iv. 2 Cor. vi. 1. from ch. v. 2 Cor. vii. 1. from ch. 
vi. Eph. v. 1,2. from ch. iv. Col. iii. 1. from ch. ii. 

1073. The proper division would be, into as many 
chapters as there are general heads in the plan ; and 
to subdivide these into sections, according to the 
several branches or topics under each head. 

1074. But it would not be always easy to make 
such a division, because it is not easy to ascertain, in 
every case, where one branch of the division ends, 
and another begins. 

1075. Many prophecies, pronounced at different 
times, and relating to different events, follow one an- 
other without any mark of distinction, and thus may 
be confounded. 

1076. In the argumentative parts of Scripture, there 
is great difficulty in distinguishing and separating the 
several members of the plan, from the author's not 
writing in an artificial order, with studied transitions, 
but sliding insensibly from one part of the subject into 
another. 

1077. The distribution can be discovered, only by 
repeated and careful attention to the whole book at 
once, that its general tenor and tendency may be per- 
ceived. 



376 PLAN AND DISTRIBUTION. 

1078. When a book has one simple design, its na- 
tural distribution is, into the several steps and argu- 
ments, by which that design is prosecuted. 

1079. When a book aims at different designs, each 
design is a separate subject, and the division of it is 
into the several subjects proposed. 

1080. In dividing a book, the joining together 
such members as are really distinct ; and the sepa- 
rating one member improperly into different branches, 
are two extremes which ought equally to be avoided. 

Rom. Introd. ch. i. 1 — 15. Part i. ch. i. 16. — ch. vi. That 
mankind can be justified only by faith, not by works. Part 
2. ch. vi. vii. viii. Obligation to holiness in consequence 
of this justification. Part 3. ch. ix. x. xi. Vindicates the 
rejection of the Jews for their unbelief. Part 4. ch. xii, 1. 
— XV. 13. Practical exhortations. Concl. ch. xv. 14. to the 
end. 

Vorst. Taylor. 

1 Cor. Introd. ch. i. 1—9. Part i. ch. i. 9. — to end of ch. vi. 
To draw them off from the false teacher or teachers, and 
reclaim them from the faults into which he had led them. 
Part 2. ch. vii. to end of ch. xv. Answering questions that 
had been proposed, resolving doubts, correcting abuses, and 
confuting errors. Concl. ch. xvi. 

Vorst. Locke. 

2 Cor. Vindication of himself from calumnies, with a digres- 
sion ch. viii. ix, on almsgiving, occasioned by one of these. 
Members. The several calumnies from which he defends 
himself. / 

Vorst. Locke. 

Gal. Introd — Part i. The true doctrine of justification. 
Part 2. To check the divisions arising from their disputes 
on the subject. Conclusion. 



PLAN AND DISTRIBUTION. 377 

1081. 2. There is difficulty in perceiving in what 
precise manner each member of the general plan is 
prosecuted. 

1082. The sacred writers do not studiously, or ar- 
tificially, distinguish the several topics which they em- 
ploy under each member. 

1083. Different prophecies are pursued and filled 
up in very different and dissimilar ways. 

1084. In the argumentative parts of Scripture, ob- 
scurity and intricacy sometimes arise, from the authors' 
not pursuing their arguments in the shortest and most 
direct way ; but, with a view to the situation, preju- 
dices, and opinions of those to whom they write. 

1085. Sometimes they carry on, at once, two dif- 
ferent designs, in consistence with, or subordination 
to, one another, without attention to both which, 
the force and tendency of their expressions cannot be 
perceived. 

Gal. ch. i. and ii. to establish the authority of his apostleship — 
and to vindicate himself from the charge of sometimes preach- 
ing circumcision. 

1086. Sometimes, they do not content themselves 
witli what is absolutely necessary for their point, but 
take occasion to throw in, and interweave, instruc- 
tions of a general and important nature, which intro- 
duce some perplexity into their arguments. 

The whole nature of the gospel, and all God's dealings with 
mankind, in Romans. , , 

•48 



378 SCOPE AND DESIGN. 

1087. Jiris necessary to ascertain the several topics 
emplrryed under each head, to distinguish them pro- 
perly from one another, and from every thing inci- 
dental and extraneous, and to view them simply in 
themselves. 

Rom. Part 1. Arg. 1. to the end of ch. iii. from the actual 
state of both Jews and Gentiles. — Arg. 2. from. ch. iv. 1. to 
ch. V. 11. from the manner of Abraham's justification. — Arg. 
3. from ch. v. 12. to end of the ch. from the universality of 
the effects of Adam's fall. 



SECT. III. 

Difficulties in Scope and Design. 

1088. There are often difficulties in discovering the 
general scope and design of a book, many of which 
are analogous to those which regard the plan and dis- 
tribution. 

1089. Our not knowing the precise view, or all 
the views which the sacred historians had, occasions 
considerable difficulty in accounting for their selection 
of materials, and their manner of pursuing their 
narrations. 

Acta John's gospel — whether a mere history— controversial, 
or a compound of both. 

1090. The best way of finding out the scope and 
design of an argumentative book, is to read it all over 
at once, and several times. 

Locke. • 



THE OCCASION. 379 

1091. Thedifiiculty of discovering their scope arises 
from their not being written in an artificial and me- 
thodical manner, and from our ignorance, in some 
instances, of the precise occasion of their writing. 

1092. The design cannot be perceived, without 
some knowledge of the tendency of the several argu- 
ments ; and this tendency cannot be perceived, without 
some knowledge of the design ; hence, these two mu- 
tually throw difficulty upon each other, and, whatever 
tends to clear up the one, proportionally gives light 
to the other. 

1093. The ascertaining the true sense of the lead- 
ing expressions in a book, contributes much to the 
discovery of its general scope. 

Rom. ambiguity of the leading expressions. — depend on the 
view in which he considers Jews and Gentiles, whether 
individually or nationally; and this, on the occasion of the 
epistle. Rom. and Gal. different designs. Taylor. Mac- 
kniglit. — but so similar, that they have been generally reck- 
oned the same. 



SECT. IV. 

Difficulties concerning the Occasion. 

1094. All the books of Scripture are, in some 
sense, occasional ; and ignorance of the occasion of 
writing them, produces in all of them some obscuri- 



380 THE TIME. 

ties : but the Epistles are, in the strictest sense, and in 
the highest degree, occasional ; and are rendered es- 
pecially obscure and difficult, by ignorance of the oc- 
casion, whenever this ignorance takes place. 

1095. There is sometimes a difficulty in ascertain- 
ing who were the persons for whose use an epistle was 
immediately intended. 

General Epistles. Ephes.^lill. Prol. 71. &c. Kuster. Pref. 
Pierce. Benson. Lardner. Macknight. Marsh's Michael. 

1096. We have seldom explicit accounts of the oc- 
casion of a particular epistle ; it must be collected 
from general accounts of the state of Christians, at 
the time of writing it, and from incidental hints in the 
book itself. 

1097. When there is difficulty in ascertaining the 
special reasons for writing an epistle, it is still more 
material, and more obstructs our understanding it. 



SECT. V. 

Difficulties concerning the Time, 

1098. There is often considerable difficulty in fix- 
ing the time of writing a book of Scripture. It can 
only be collected, with different degrees of probabil- 
ity, from expressions in the book itself, from hints in 
other places of Scripture, and from a variety of o|her 
circumstances. 



THE AUTHORS. 381 

Gal. A. 61. Theodoret. Athanas. synops. Oecumen. Li^ht- 
foot.— A. 57. or 58. Capell. Wits. Wall. Pearson. Mill. 
Locke. — A. 52. or 53. Barringt. misc. sac. Benson Hist. 
B. 3 c. 5. Lardn. supp. c. 12. § 3. Michael. L'enfant. 
Beausobre.— A. 49. Marsh's Michael. Vol. 4, ch. 11. 
sect. 1. 

1099. There is difficulty in arranging the Psalms 
in the order of time. 

1100. Whenever prophecies are not delivered ac- 
cording to the order in which they were pronounced, 
it occasions considerable obscurity. 



SECT. VI. 



Difficulties concerning the Authors, 



1101. There is sometimes difficulty in determining 
who was the author of a particular book of Scripture. 

1102. Ignorance of the author occasions obscurity 
in a book^ chiefly, when it introduces uncertainty con- 
cerning the time and the scope of the book- 
Pentateuch. Epistle to the Hebrews. 



382 KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 



SECT. VII. 

Difficulties in different Kinds of Composition, 

1103. As the Scripture contains different sorts of 
compositions^ each sort has some difficulty peculiar to 
itself^ and suitable to its general nature. 

1104. There is, sometimes, difficulty in determin- 
ing how far the sacred historians intended to observe, 
or have observed the chronological order of events ; 
and yet, it is often of importance to determine it. 

1105. In the book of Judges, the time of each 
Judge is not marked ; it is not specified whether 
all the Judges were successive, or whether some of 
them were not contemporary ; and the last six chap- 
ters contain events which happened soon after Moses' 
death, and much prior to those which are recorded in 
many preceding chapters, perhaps in all, from chap, 
iii. 1. 

1106. There is sometimes difficulty in determining 
whether the Evangelists observed the order of time ; 
if any of them did, which of them it is 5 if they did 
not in all cases, what are the cases in which they 
deviated. 

1107. All the doctrinal books of the New Testa- 
ment are Epistles ; and epistolary writing is, from its 
very nature, liable to many peculiar difficulties, ex- 



KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 383 

cept to the persons to whom a letter is directed, and 
who are acquainted with all circumstances relating 
to it. 

1108. There are many difficulties, with regard to 
the Hebrew poetry, considered in every point of view. 

Lowth. Herder. 

1109. The prophecies have all the same kinds of 
difficulties with the other poetical books ; and they 
have also many peculiar to themselves, on account of 
their being prophetical. 

1110. There is difficulty in ascertaining and ex- 
plaining the several ways in which the prophetical in- 
spiration was communicated, as by dreams, visions^ 
&c. 

1111. In prophecy, the figures and images are more 
complex than in other poetry ; and, therefore, there 
is greater difficulty in analyzing them. 

1112. There is great difficulty in explaining, apply- 
ing, and vindicating the signs or emblematical actions, 
by which the prophets foretell future events. 

EzekieU Horsley's Hosea. 

1113. When future events are predicted in parabo- 
lical discourses, this generally occasions some degree 
of obscurity. 

Ezek. xvii. 1. &c. xix. 1. &c. 

1114. There is, sometimes, difficulty in determin* 
ing whether a prediction has a single or a double mean- 
ing. 



384 KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 

1115. When a prediction clearly refers only to 
one events or^ when there is no mark of its being in- 
tended to signify raore^ it ought to be explained only 
of that one; and they err, who, in every prophecy of 
the Messiah, search for a reference also to some other 
event. 

Grot. Cler. 

1116. In prophecies which have a double sense, it 
is sometimes difficult to perceive what parts of them 
relate to each of the two events, what parts to both, 
and in what manner. 

Isa. vii. viii. ix. ch. x. xi. ch. xxxiv. xxxv. Lowth on Isa. viii. 
Isa. xl. Lowth. 

The book of Job is an instance of almost all the difficulties in 
this cliapter. Some reckon it very ancient, in the time of 
Moses, or before it. Chappel. Michael. Schult. Lowth.— 
Others, very modern, during or after the Kings- Heath. 
Warburt. — Some, written by Job or Elihu, or some con- 
temporary. Dupin. Hist, of Can. B. L c. 3. s. 10. Lowth 
prael. Si2. Schult. prsef. Lightfoot. — Some translated by 
Moses. Patrick, pref. Grey, pref.— Some, written by Moses. 
Huet, dem. evan. pr. 4. Lowth. Michael. — or, by Solo- 
mon, or some prophet about that time. Dup. ib. Span- 
heim, hist. Job. c. 16. Chapp. — or, by Isaiah, Codurc. — 
during the Babylonian captivity. Heath, Essay. — by Ezra 
after the captivity, Warburt. B. 6. s. 2. — Whether a dra- 
matic poem or not ? Whether a real history, (Lowth. 
Schult. Chappel.) or an allegorical poem ? Michael. War- 
burt. Heath, fecope — an example of patience, Schult. 
Grey, — whether one so much afflicted could be really pious, 
Lowth. — to shew God's supreme power over the whole 
creation, Chappel. — to oppose the Manichean doctrine, 
Sherlock. — or, the transmigration of souls,— to comfort the 
Israelites in Egypt, Michael — or, to cojiifort them during the 
captivity. Heath. — on ceasing of an equal providence after 
the captivity. Warburt. 



OF RECONCILING SCRIPTURE TO ITSELF. 385 



CHAP. V. 

Of Reconciling Scripture to Itself. 

1117. When Scripture is compared with itself, one 
passage has, sometimes, the appearance of contradict- 
ing another. 

1118. There are seeming contradictions, in quota- 
tions, — in historical passages, — between predictions 
and their accomplishment, and in points of doctrine. 



SECT. I. 

Seeming Contradictions in Quotations. 

1119. Some passages of Scripture are quoted in 
other passages ; particularly, passages of the Old Tes- 
tament are quoted in the New : and, in these, there is 
often an appearance of difference, or inconsistence, be- 
tween the original and the quotation. 

1120. The appearance of inconsistence regards, ei- 
ther the words in which the quotation is made, — or 
the purpose to which it i§ applied. 

1121. 1. The former occurs, when the words in 
which the quotation 'Is made, differ from those of the 
original, that is, the Hebrew text. 

40 



^^86 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

1122. Several quotations of the Old Testament, by 
the writers of the New, are made according to the 70 
version, and that, when it seems to differ from the 
sense of the Hebrew. 

1123. To vindicate such quotations, it must be 
shown, either that the 70 version does really express 
the true sense of the Hebrew, as it now stands, — or, 
that there is a corruption in the one or the other. 

1124. The 70 version, copied in the quotations of 
the New Testament, often expresses the true sense of 
the present Hebrew, deducible from the kindred lan- 
guages, or, even from the style of Scripture, or the 
connexion of the passage; though not the sense put 
upon it by modern translators and commentators : 
and the appearance oi contradiction is removed by a 
just interpretation of the Hebrew. 

Psal. civ. 4. " Who maketh the winds his messengers, and the 
flaming fire his ministers." — but licb. i. 7. trom 70. " his 
angels spirits^ — ministers a flame of fire." equally agreeable 
to the words, and more to the connexion. 

Isa. xxviii. 16. "He that believeth shall not make haste" 
Vuls;. Ena;. modern versions. But Rom. ix. S3, x. 11. 
and 1 Pet. it. 6. " be ashamed.-^ — no corruption in the He- 
brew, Capel. Grot. — a real sense of iJ^n in Arab. 70. Arab. 
Chald. Syr. 

Jer. xxxi. 31, 32, 33, 34. with Heb. viii. 8—12. " Which my 
covenant they brake, although I was an husband unto 
them." Eng. — " delighted myself in them," Chald. — "ruled 
ouer them," Vulg. — but Heb. viii. 9. from 70. " and I re- 
garded them not.'* — no corruption, a real sense of '7i?3 in 
Arab. Syr. Arab, connexion. 



IN QUOTATIONS. * 387 

1125. In other instances, the seeming contradiction 
arises from a corruption in the present Hebrew, which 
may be proved with a j^reater or less degree of evi- 
dence, and the contradiction will be removed, by re- 
storing the true reading. 

Ps. xvi. 10. "Neither wilt thou suffer thy saints to see cor- 
ruption," Heb — but, Acts ii. 27, 31. xiii. 35 — 37. from the 
70. "holy Oney right, most MSS. Keri. bteph. all ancient 
versions. 

Kennic. Diss, et in loc. 
Isa. xxix. 13. "And their fear toward me is taught by the 
precept of men^' — but Matth. xv. 8, 9. Mark vii. 6, 7. from 
70. "But in vain (mm corrupted into 'nni) they do wor- 
ship me, teaching (niD^D, not moSD) doctrines, the com- 
mandments of men." 
Hos. xiii. 14. "0 death, I will he thy plagues; O grave, I will 
he thy destruction.'* Eng. — but, 1 Cor. xv. 55, nearly from 
70. and literally, from Syr. "O death, where is thy sting; 
grave, ivhere is thy victory ?*' Aq. Syr. Arab. ri'X corrupt- 
ed into "TIN. Kennic. Diss. 1. p. 513. Or, perhaps, no quo- 
tation, but only an indirect allusion. 
Horsley's Hosea, note (W) on ch. xiii. 
Psal. xl. 6. " Mine ears hast thou bored** — but, Heb. x 5. 
" A body hast thou prepared for me," 70. connexion, struc- 
ture, nu TX corrupted into Q'JTX. 
Kennic. Serm. not. 33. Diss Gen. 
Amos. ix. 11, 12. with Acts xv. 16, 17. Med. Wal. Ham. 
Amos V. 26. with Acts vii. 43. 
Habak. ii. 4. with Heb. x. 38. 

- 1126. In some instances, it is doubtful which of 
these solutions is preferable ; and some quotations 
admit both solutions in different parts of them. 

Hab. i. 5. with Acts xiii. 41. Capel. Grot. Bez. Knatchb. 
Pocock. Ham. 



388 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

1127. It is far from being true, though it has been 
generally taken for granted, that all the quotations in 
the New Testament^ are made according to the 70 
version ; most of them are not accurately copied from 
it ; many of them are not at all taken from it, but 
translated by the writer himself immediately from the 
Plebrew. 

Marsh's Michael, ch. 5. sect. 3. 

1128. The writers of the New Testament seem to 
have been so careful to give the true sense of the Old 
Testament, that they forsake the 70 version, when- 
ever it gave not that sense, so fitr as they had occa- 
sion to quote it ; and these quotations often agree 
clearly with the present Hebrews 

Isa. XXV. 8. with 1 Cor. xv. 54. " Death is swallowed up in 
\ictory," or, "for ever" — but 70. "Death, being victorious, 
hath swallowed up." 

1129. But some of the quotations in the New Tes- 
tament^ not copied from the 70, seem to differ from 
the Hebrew^ as well as from that version. 

1130. The appearance of contradiction sometimes 
arises from the Hebrew being generally misunderstood: 
the writers of the New Testament express the true 
sense; though not the sense generally put upon it. 

Ps. Ixviii. 18. " Thou hast received gifts for men," Heb. 70. — 
but Eph. iv 8. "fl;'aue gifts unto men.'' npS signifies both. 
Chaiil. Grot, Dru>. 
Glass, I. 3. t. 3. c. 2. 

Mic. V. 2. with Matth ii. 6, 



m QUOTATIONS. 589 

1131. The appearance of contradiction sometimes 
arises from the apostles not intending a literal transla- 
tion, but only giving the general meaning of a pas- 
sage. 

Isa. xlii, 1 — 4 quoted Matth. xii. 17 — 21. Grot. 

1132. It may sometimes arise from a mistake hav- 
ing crept into the Hebrew text. 

1133. 2. There is often a difficulty with regard 
to the application of quotations ; when they are ap- 
plied to a purpose to which they seem to have no re- 
lation, according to their original design. 

1134. This difficulty arises from the writers of the 
New Testament making quotations from the Old, with 
very different views ; and, it can be removed only by 
attending to their real view in a particular quotation. 

1135. When they quote a passage of the Old Tes- 
tament, merely in the way of allusion, it is enough 
that the words which they borrow, express emphati- 
cally their own meaning ; it is not necessary tliat they 
be precisely the same with those in the passage allud- 
ed to, nor that they be there used, either of the same 
subject, or of a similar subject. 

Deut. XXX. 12, 13, 14. of the law.— Rom. x. 6, 7, 8. accommo- 
dated to the gospel, with proper variations and explications. 

Ps. xix. 4. of the heavenly bodies. — Rom. x. 18. accommodated 
to the preaching of the apostles. 

1136. Sometimes, they mean only to apply to one 
case, expressions which have been used in the Old 
Testament of a similar case, and thus to intimate, that 



390 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

the two cases are^ in some respects, correspondent ; and, 
when they do^ it is not necessary that the original be 
exactly copied. 

Jer. xxxi. 15. " Voice in Ramah," &c. of the captivity. Matth. 
ii. 17, 18. of the murder of the infants. 

Hos. xi. 1. "Out of Egypt have I called my son." Matth. ii. 

15. to Christ's deliverance from Herod. 
Isa. lii. 5. " My name is blasphemed." — Rom.ii. 24. applied to 

the Jews of that time. 

1137. When they quote a passage of the Old Tes- 
tament to prove a point of doctrine, they apply it^ 
though not always in the precise words of the original, 
yet constantly according to its genuine sense, as it 
stands there. 

Deut. viii. 3. " Not live by bread alone." with Matth. iv. 4. 

Deut. vi. 16. « Not tempt the Lord," with Matth. iv. 7. 

Hos vi. 6. *^ Mercy and not sacrifice." applied to different 

purposes, Matth. ix. 13 and xii 7. but to both properly. 
Deut. xxxii. 35. and Prov. xxv 21, 22 with Rom. xii. 19, 20. 
Eras. Vat. Ham. Tayl. 

1138. When they quote passages of the Old Tes- 
tament, as predictions accomplished, these passages 
were really intended to fortell the very events to which 
they apply them, th >!igh various circumstances prevent 
our readily perceiving that they were. 

1139. Predictions which relate only to the times of 
the Messiah, are yet not readily perceived to relate to 
them, by reason of the obscure, or figurative, or poeti- 
cal manner in which they are expressed. 

Zech. \i. 12, 13. with Matth. xxvii. 9, 10. 

Mai. iv. 5. *' Elijah— terrible day." Matth. xi. 14. xvii. 12. 



IN QUOTATIONS. 391 

1140. Predictions which relate only to the times of 
the Messiah, are mistaken as referring to other things, 
by reason of their being intermixed with, or occasioned 
by, such as do relate to these other things. 

Isa. vii. 14. with Matth. i. 23. 
Isa. ix. 1, 2. with Matth. iv. 15, 16. 
Mcde, Disc. 25. 

1141. Predictions which relate only to the times of 
the Messiah, are sometimes obscured by their having 
been very generally misunderstood, and misapplied to 
other events. 

Deut. xviii. 15. "A prophet like unto me." with Acts iii. 22. 
vii. 37. 

1142. The application of predictions in the New 
Testament, is sometimes rendered obscure, by our not 
ascertaining the precise point, for proof of which they 
are quoted. 

Isa. liii. 4. with Matth. viii. 17. not as proof of miracles, hut of 
his being the Saviour, of whose salvation these miracles were 
samples. 

Ps. viii. 2. with Matth. xxi. 16. 

1143. The application of predictions in the New 
Testament, sometimes appears exceptionable, because 
they refer to other events in their primary and literal 
sense, and to the Messiah only in a secondary sense. 

Ps, viii. 6, 7, 8. with Heb. ii. 6, &c. 1 Cor. xv. 27. 

1144. Difficulty sometimes arises, from its not be- 
ing clear what is the particular passage of the Old 
Testament, intended in a quotation or reference. 



392 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

Heb. i. 6. whence quoted ? 

Matth. ii. 23. '' called a Nazarene," — from some book lost, 
Chrys. — or, from interpreters of the prophets, — or, refers to 
Nazarites, (Eras. Zeger. Grot.) and intimates that he should 
be " the holy One." — or, to the prediction of 1¥J, " a branch,'' 
Isa. xi. I. Bez. Maldon. Ham. — or, to predictions of his be- 
ing despised. 

Macknight. Campb. 

John xix. 36, 37. 

Kennic. Diss. Gen. 

1145. Sometimes, there is difficulty in a quotation, 
both with respect to the words, and with respect to 
the application of it; and difficulties of each sort 
sometimes arise from several of the causes together, 
which have been mentioned ; but they may be all 
removed by the means already pointed out. 
Zech. xi. 12, 13. with Matth. xxvii. 9, 10. 



SECT. II. 



Seeming Contradictions in Historical Passages, 



1146. There are appearances of contradiction — in 
the circumstances of events, as they are related in one 
passage of Scripture, — in different relations of the 
same events, by different sacred writers, — and in the 
relation of events in one passage, and references to 
them in another. 



IN IIISTORICAf. PASSAGES. 393 

1147. 1. Appearances of contradiction^ in any one 
relation of an event, arise either from false readings ; 
or, from obscurity, or ambiguity in some of the ex- 
pressions ; or, from transpositions in the order of re- 
lating ; and; sometimes, from more than one of these 
causes. 

Gen. xxix. 1. — 8. A dialogue, yet none mentioned but Jacob 
and three flocks of sheep, whicli converse, and roll the stone, 
and water the sheep. — from changing tl3''j;nn, " shepherds," 
into C3'"n;;n, in v. :2. and 8. " flocks *' Sam. Arab 70, — 
from V. 3. expressing what customarily happened, not what 
had then actually happened. Vulg. 
Ken. Diss. 1. p. 360. 
1 Sam. xvii. 12, &c. 

Ken. Diss. 2. p. 418, &c. 554, &c. 575. 

1148. 2. When the same events are related in 
different places, there is sometimes an appearance of 
contradiction with respect — either to the facts them- 
selves, and their circumstances, — or, to the order of 
them. 

1149. Seeming contradictions in the facts them- 
selves, and their circumstances, are of different kinds, 
and arise from different causes. 

1150. There are many differences in proper names, 
most of which arise from false readings, and must be 
reconciled by correcting these. 

Hadadezar, Sam.— Hadarezar, Chron. Abimelech, Chron. — 
Ahimelech, Sam. — Bathshebah the daughter of Eliam, Sam. 
— Bathshuah the daughter of Amiel, Chron. — Nebuchadnez- 
zar — Nebuchadrezzar. 
50 



394 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

1151. The true name may be distinguished from 
the corrupted one, by the usage of Scripture in other 
places, by that of the Samaritan Pentateuch, of the an- 
eient versions, and of Josephus. 

1152. There are many differences in numbers, and 
these also generally arise from a false reading. 

1153. Sometimes the corruption is occasioned by a 
similitude in the names of the numbers. 

1 Chron. xi. 11, 15, 20. compared with 2 Sam. xxiii. 8, 13, 18. 
Ken. DisF. 1. 

1154. Sometimes, it is occasioned by a similitude 
between the numeral letters. 

Numb. iii. 22, 28. 34, 39. Ken. Diss, 1, p. 99. 

1 Kings is. 28. with 2 Chron. viii. 10. lb. p. 529. 

2 Kings viii. 26. with 2 Chron. xxii. 2. 

2 Sam. viii. 4. with 1 Chron. xviii. 4. lb. p. 462. 
2 Sam. X. 18. with I Chron. xix. 18. lb. p. 463. 
2 Sam. xxiv. 13. with 1 Chron. xxi. 12. 

1 Kings ix. 28. with 2 Chron. viii. 18. lb. p. 529. 

1155. Sometimes the corruption seems to have been 
occasioned by a similitude in figures, by which num- 
bers were expressed. 

2 Sam. vi. 19. 50,070— but 5,070. Syr. Arab. 

Ken. Diss. 1. p. 532. Diss. 2. p. 208.— -70 Ken. Rem. in I. 

1 Kings iv. 26. 40,000. with 2 Chron. ix. 25. 4,000. 
lb. Diss. 1. 

2 Chron. xiii. 3, 17.400,000. 800,000. 500,000.— Old Vulgate, 
40,000. 80,000. 50,<;00. 

lb. and Diss. 2. p. 193. 

2 Kings xxiv. 8. with 2 Chron. xxxvi. 9. 



IN HISTORICAL PASSAGES. 396 

lb. Diss. 2. p. 216. 
2 Chron. xvii. 13 — 19. 

lb. p. 218. 
2 Sam. xxiii 8. with 1 Chron. it. 11. 

lid. Diss. 1. p. 95. 

1156. But differences in numbers sometimes arise 
only from the writers using different methods of reckon- 
ing. 

Mark xv. 25 Jesus crucified at the third hour. Jewish com- 
putation . John xix. 14. brought forth at the sixth hour. 
Roman computation ; or, a different manner of reckoning 
among the Jews. 
Campbell 

1157. Facts, or even a series of facts, in one histo- 
rian, seem to be the same with those related by an- 
other historian, yet to be totally repugnant to them in 
many of their circumstances ; but, are not repugnant, 
because they are really different facts. 

Matth. i. 1, <^c. Christ's genealogy by Joseph. Luke iii. 23, 
&c. His genealogy by Mary. 

1158. When what was 5/?oA;en is differently related 
by different historians, it sometimes proceeds from 
their intending to give, not the very words, but only 
the sense ; sometimes, from their recording different 
parts of what was said ; and, sometimes, from both 
together. 

Words of the institution of the Supper. Title on the cross. 
Matth. xix. 3, &c. with Mark x. 2, &c. 
Macknight. 

1159. When there appears to be a contrariety in 
different relations of what was spoken, it may be often 



396 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

removed by limiting and restraining the general or 
ambiguous expressions, or explaining the obscure 
ones, from which it arises. 

Matth. X. 10. " Neither shoes — nor a staff" Mark vi. 8. "no- 
thing save a staff — but shod with sandals." 
Calv. Munst. Lamy. Macknight. 

1160. A seeming contradiction between different 
relations of what was done^ sometimes arises from the 
same causes, and is removed by the same means. 

Matth. iii. IS, 14. " Comest thou to me"— but John i. 33. " I 

knew him not," i. e. had not known him. 
Mark v. 23. " My daughter is at the point of death ;" but, 

Matth. ix. 18. "is dead," i. e. almost dead. 

1161. A seeming contradiction sometimes arises, 
from different historians relating different circumstan- 
ces, or one of them, more or fewer than the other. 

Matth ii with Luke ii. i— 39. 

Acts ix. 7. with ch. xxii. 9. xxvi. 14. 

1162. There are seeming contradictions, likewise, 
in the order of facts, as related by different historians. 
They sometimes introduce events by anticipation, and 
and sometimes by va-TSgaiig, 

Gen. i. 27. The creation of man briefly hinted. Ch. ii. 7. af- 
ter several other things, the creation of Adam particularly; 
and V. 21. after some other things, that of Eve. 

Matth. xxvi. 21. and Mark xiv. 18, intimation who should be- 
tray him, while eating the passover — but, Luke xxii. 21. af- 
ter the institution of the supper ; this last the true order, for 
occasioned by the cup, and suitable to John, that Judas in- 
stantly went out. 



IN HISTORICAL PASSAGES. 397 

John's imprisonment. Luke, in the account of his preaching, 
hints it ; the rest, by vrepanrti^ give a particular account of it, 
at Herod's being alarmed ; none of them mention it in its 
own place. 
. Acts ix. 4, 5, r. with ch. xxii. 9. xxvi. 14, 15. 

1163. The sacred historians often deviate from the 
exact order of time ; and are at liberty to do so, as 
they proposed not to write regular journals. In this 
case, the nature of the thing sometimes shews which 
historian observes the real order. 

Isa. xxxviii. ^1, 22. Sign of recovery given to Hezekiah— sign 
asked ; — real order in 2 Kings xx. 7, 8 ; a transposition in 
Isa. and, probably, from a transcriber's mistake. 

1164. If one historian affirms the order which he 
observes, and another does not, the real order is that 
which is tbllowed by the former. 

Matth. iv. affirms the order of temptations, rors, Trxhtv, Luke 
iv, a different order, but not affirmed, only ««/. 

1165. When one of the historians can be shown to 
have had a particular reason for departing from the 
order of time, while the other had no such reason, the 
facts ought to be placed in that order which the latter 
has observed. 

A writer may be prevented from relating an event at the time 
it happened, by not having taken notice of the circumstan- 
ces which occasioned it. — The mention of one event gives 
occasion for mentioning others, its consequences, though long 
posterior ; — or, for going backward to what contributed to it ; 
— or, for introducing others similar to it. 

1166. Difficulties regarding the facts themselves, 
and difficulties regarding the order of tliem, often mu- 
tually arise, in part, from each other. 



398 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

1167. Facts, related by different historians, in dif- 
ferent places of their narration, are apt to be regarded 
as different facts, but may be the same facts. 

Cleric, can. 7. Michael. § 86. 

Matth. xxvi. 6—13. and Mark xiv. 3 — 9. give the history of 
anointing Christ two clays before the passover ; — but John 
xii. 3 — 8 six days before it — seeming inconsistencies in the 
circumstances, as well as time— not different, Cler. Mackn* 
but the same, and consistent. Michael. Drus Grot. — each 
had a natural occasion for placing it as he does ; John, for 
mentioning it when it happened, by the resurrection of Laza- 
ptrs; 1ii€ others, not then, but by u^epuTii, on Judas's making 
his bargain ; and, they give no note of time. John says not 
that it was in the house of Lazarus ; — otiier circumstances 
easily reconciled; — the different circumstances to be put to- 
gether. 

1168. Facts, related by different sacred historians, 
may be different, though they be similar in many of 
their circumstances, and though there be nothing in 
the order of relating them which can certainly fix the 
diversity. 

Cler. can. 9, 10. Mackn. Obs. 4. 

Luke xii. 36 — 50. Anointing of Jesus— not the same with the 

former. Grot, but different ; — the similar circumstances easily 

accounted for ; — the discordant ones, not. 

1169. 3. There is, sometimes, an appearance of 
contradiction between professed relations of events in 
one passage, and incidental references • to them in 
another. 

1170. Sometimes, the reference appears repugnant 
to circumstances actually taken notice of in the narra- 
tion ; and, such repugnance may be of any of the kinds 



IN HISTORICAL PASSAGES. 399 

already mentioned^ aad is to be removed by the same 
principles. 

Mark. ii. 25, 26. " In the days of Abiathar"— refers to 1 Sam. 
xxi. 1, 2. where it is *' Ahimelech ; *~not, a false reading in 
Mark — not, the son of the high-priest — not, about the time 
of Abiathar — not, a mere denomination, because afterwards 
high-priest — but, Abiathar, the father of Ahimelech, who of- 
ficiated for him, and, therefore, naturally mentioned in Sam. 
and he, the father of another Abiathar. 

Matth. xxiii. 35. " Zacharias, the son of Barachias*' — seems to 
contradict 2 Chron. xxiv. 21. " son of Jehoiada." Tillots. 
vol. 2. Ser. 27. 

Acts vii. 16. with Gen. xxxiii. 19. 

1171. Sometimes, things are referred to as having 
happened, of which no notice at all is taken in the 
relations of the sacred historians ; but, this implies 
only that these historians do not relate every thing 
that happened. 

Mackn. Obs. 2. 

Gen. xxxi. 7, 8. Changing Jacob's wages. Ps. cv. 18. Jo- 
seph fettered. Hos. xii. 4. xiii. 10. Amos v. 2. Mic. vi. 
5—8. Matth. xi. 21. John xi. 49, 50 Acts xx. 35. a say- 
ing of Christ. 1 Cor. xv. 7. an appearance of Christ to 
James. 

1172 It is, both to obtain light by comparison of 
parallel places, and to remove seeming contradictions, 
that harmonies of the historical books of Scripture are 
intended ; and, what has been said under these two 
heads, points out the general principles on which such 
harmonies should be constructed. 

Macknight's harmony. White's Diatessaron. Fellowes' Guide 
to Immortality. Marsh's Michael. voL 3. ch. 2. 



400 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 



SECT. III. 



Seeming Contradictions between Predictions and their 
Accomplishment, 



1173. When, both a prediction, and the event 
foretold in it, are recorded in Scripture, there is, 
sometimes, an appearance of disagreement and incon- 
sistence between them. 

1174. This appearance generally arises from some 
difficulty in understanding the true meaning of the 
prediction ; it may be occasioned by any of those 
causes which produce the peculiar difficulties of the 
prophetical writings ; and, it is to be removed by the 
same means which serve for clearing these difficulties. 

1175. It may proceed from any sort of obscurity or 
ambiguity in the expression, or from any sort of un- 
certainty in the structure of a sentence. 

JVlatt. xii. 40. Jesus three nights and three days in the grave. 

1176. In particular, it often proceeds from the fig- 
urative style of prophecy. 

1177. It may be occasioned by the ordinary manner 
of the prophets, predicting what relates to the moral 
and religious state of the world, in metaphors borrow- 
ed from the parts of the natural world. \ 

Jsewton on Daniel. Hag. ii. b — -9. , 



BETWEEN PREDICTIONS, &C. 401 

1178. It maybe occasioned by the prophets ex- 
pressing what relates to the Christian dispensation 
and worship, in terms borrowed from the Mosaic re- 
ligion. 

Warb. Div Leg. Halifax, Serm. 1. 

fsa. ii. 2, 3. xix. 19. Ivi. T. Jer. iii. 17. Zech. viii. 22. Mai. 
i. 11. 

1179. It may be occasioned, by a prediction relat- 
ing only to one part of a complex character, or event, 
and, on that account, seeming to be inconsistent with 
other parts of it; and the appearance will be remov- 
ed, by taking in such predictions as relate to these 
other parts, and considering them all in connexion. 

Predictions of the glory of the Messiah — to be compared with 
predictions of his precedent sufferings. 

1180. It sometimes arises from several of these 
causes, or from them all together. 

Gen. xlix. 10. 

Isa. vii. 8. Lowth. 



SECT. IV. 



Seeming Contradictions in Points of Doctrine. 



1181. There is, sometimes, an appearance of con- 
tradiction, between the doctrine delivered in one pas- 
sage, and the doctrine delivered in another passage, 
51 



402 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

1182. Between a general assertion in one text;, and 
a restriction of it^ or exception from it, in another 
text, there is an appearance of contradiction, which is 
sometimes removed, by explaining the former with the 
proper limitations. 

Luke xvi. 18. Mark x. 11, 12. divorce absolutely forbidden — 
but, Matth. V. 32. xix. 9. allowed for adultery only ; yet, 
1 Cor. vii. 15. seems to be allowed also for wilful desertion. 

1183. An appearance of contradiction in a point of 
doctrine, sometimes arises, from the same term being 
used in different senses, in diiferent texts ; and is re- 
mov d by restricting it properly in each. 

Mat. xviii. 21, S'S. forgiveness required absolutely — but Luke 
xvii. 3, 4. required only on condition of repentance — for- 
oiveness used in diiferent senses. Rom. iii. 28 " A man is 
justified by faith, without the deeds of the law" — but. Jam. 
ii. 24. " By works a man is justified, and not by faith only,*' 
Some of the words in different senses; either works; some 
think that Paul means ' ceremonial works,' James, * moral,* 
Clar. Wall. — others, Paul, 'perfect obedience,' James, * im- 
perfect,' Ysitab.— or faith ; Paul, *true faith with its effects,' 
James, ' mere assent,' Grot. Drus. J. Capel. Macknight, — or 
justification; some, Paul, 'in the sight of God,' James, 'in 
that of men ;' others, Paul, ' first justification,* James, ' se- 
cond, or final.' Zeger. Hoadley. Tayl. 

1184. When the same action or effect seems, in 
different passages of Scripture, to be ascribed to dif- 
ferent causes, it sometimes arises, from the name of 
that action or effect not being used in precisely the 
same signification, in these passages. 

Rom. iv. 25. "And was raJstd again for our justification;" 
but, ch. V. 9. "Being justified by his Hood,^^ or death. 



IN POINTS OF DOCTRINE. 403 

Rom. viii. 34. "Christ evrvyxc^vst makes intercession for us;*' 
so Heb. vii. 25. — but, Rom. viii. 26, '3,7. " The Spirit evrvy- 
;^;«yf/," viz. by his influence on our hearts. 

1185. When the same action or effect is, in differ- 
ent texts, ascribed to different persons or causes, it is, 
sometimes, on account of their all contributing to it in 
different ways. 

1186. When different, and seemingly inconsistent, 
descriptions are given of the same subject, often they 
both represent it truly, but in different points of view. 

Christ sitting at God's right hand ; — but, Acts vii. 56, standing. 
Mat. X. 34. compared with Luke ix. 56. and with the whole 
genius of the gospel. 

1187. The pretended contrariety between the Old 
Testament and the New. 

1188. The contrariety pretended by Morgan and 
Bolingbroke, between the gospel of Christ and that 
of Paul. 



404 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 



CHAP. VI. 



Seeming Contradictions to Reason and Morality, 

1189. There are, in Scripture, some passages which 
have the appearance of contradicting the principles of 
reason and morality, and which must be explained so 
as to be reconciled to these principles. 

1190. They are, either seeming contradictions to 
truth — or, seemingly contradictory to good morals — 
or, in appearance unreasonably severe, or impracti- 
cable. 



SECT. I. 

Seeming Contradictions to Truth, 

1191. There are, in Scripture, passages which 
seem to be contradictory to truth, to imply some absur- 
dity, or, at least, to be inconsistent with true opinions. 

1192. Some seeming absurdities, or contradictions 
to truth, arise only from false readings, and are re- 
moved by restoring the true reading. 



TO TRUTH. 405 

1193. Some seeming contradictions to truth arise 
only from the use of figurative expressions, accommo- 
dated to the weakness of human conceptions^ or, to the 
ordinary way of thinking of mankind. 

Bodily parts and passions ascribed to God. Representations 
not according to the true system of nature. 

1194. The account of the creation, as implying that 
light was made on the first day, and the sun, moon, and 
stars, only on the fourth day, and that there are waters 
above and below, divided by a solid partition, cannot 
be pronounced absurd or impossible, though it may be 
difficult, from the nature and singularity of the subject, 
to give an explication of these, and other particulars, 
that shall be, in all respects, satisfactory. 

Burnett, Archeeol. 1. 2. c. 8. 9. Jennings' Astron. Append. 
Whiston's Theory, Pref. Edwards' Exercitations, No. 1. 
Patrick on Gen i. 3—15. Nichols' Confer, vol. 1. p 90, &c. 
Univ. Hist. vol. 1. 

1195. The appearances of absurdity in the account 
of the fall, of supposing a brute serpent to speak, Eve 
not to be alarmed at it, and the serpent to be sentenced 
to what he always did, and could not but do, to go 
upon his belly, arise, according to some, only from tak- 
ing, in a literal sense, figurative expressions used con- 
cerning the devil. 

Chandler's Serm. Gerard's Serm. vol. I. Serm. 4. 

1196. There is no absurdity in supposing the de- 
luge universal, on account of the vast quantity of water 
necessary for overflowing the earth to such a depth 
as Moses asserts ; for that quantity might, possibly^ 



406 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

be naturally brought upon it, and certainly could, by a 
miracle. 

Burnett. Whlston. Keil. Saurin. Nichols. Edwards. Ray. 
Univ. Hist. 

1197. We are too much ignorant of the real di- 
mensions of Noah's ark, and, likewise, of the number 
of the originally distinct kinds of animals, to be able to 
determine that it was impossible for it to contain the 
numbers said by Moses to have been received into it. 

Wells^s Geog. of O. T. v. 1. i^aurin, Diss. v. 1. Univ. Hist. 
V. 1. Calmet's Diet. Wilkinss Real Char. p. 2. c. 5. § 6, 7. 
StiUingf. Orig. Sacr. i. 3. c. 4. § T". 

1198. It is said to be absurd to represent the rain- 
bow^ as created after the deluge, and made the sign of a 
covenant then entered into, when it necessarily results 
from the nature of light and of rain ; but, either the 
constitution of the antediluvian world may have been 
such as to prevent its appearance, or, it might have 
been after the flood, only appropriated to a new pur- 
pose, though it had always appeared. 

Burnett. Whist. Nichols. Saurin. 

1199. Objections raised against incidents related in 
Scripture, as, Balaam's ass speakings some of Samp- 
son's exploits, &c. are not sufficient to render them in- 
credible ; such facts being professedly related as mira- 
culous, and some of them too, being capable of inter- 
pretations, which render them less marvellous than 
they are generally thought to be. ^ 

Stackhousc. 



TO TRUTH. 407 

1200. The Scripture seems to suppose the reality of 
magical operations, and witchcraft ; but they cannot 
be, on that account, proved absurd ; for, though the 
greatest part of what has passed as such, has doubtless 
been the effect of a disordered imagination, or artificial 
contrivance, or mere fiction and imposition ; yet we 
cannot be certain that evil spirits have never been per- 
mitted such communication with mankind. 

1201 . There is no absurdity in the accounts so fre- 
quent in the New Testament, of demoniacs, or persons 
possessed by evil spirits, and tormented with diseases 
by their influence ; whether, with some, we explain 
these passages as speaking only of certain natural dis- 
eases, in language accommodated to the notions then 
commonly entertained of them ; or whether, as is the 
general opinion, we consider them as real possessions. 

1202. The healing virtue of the pool at Bethesda, 
after its being moved by the angel, is miraculous, but 
not absurd or incredible. 

John V. 4. Macknight. Griesb. 

1203. When some of the doctrines of revelation are 
represented as contrary to reason, the contrariety al- 
leged generally affects, not the expressions of any text 
of Scripture concerning them, but some of the expli- 
cations which men have given of these doctrines ; and, 
therefore, belongs more properly to the System, than 
to Scripture criticism. 



408 SEEMING CONTRADICTION'S 



SECT. II. 



Seeming Contradictions to Morality. 



1204. Though it must be acknowledged by every 
person of common candour, that the Scripture contains^ 
in general^ the purest morality, yet, there are some 
p rticular passages, which have been represented as 
giving countenance to immorality. There are instan- 
ces of this in historical relations — in occasional com- 
mands — in standing precepts — in doctrines — and in 
prophecies. 

1205. 1. The characters of some of the saints men- 
tioned in Scripture, are, in some respects, faulty ; but, 
as their faults are, sometimes, expressly condemned — 
sometimes, merely related as facts ; as their charac- 
ters are often, notwithstanding these faults, excellent 
upon the whole ; as the not concealing them shows 
the integrity of the writers, and tends to answer 
many good purposes, they give no countenance to 
immorality. 

Noah's drunkenness. Jacob's deceiving Isaac. Jephtha and 
Sampson bad characters, yet commended for faith, Heb. xi. 
39. David. Chandler's Life of David, and Answer to his- 
tory of the man after God"s own heart Solomon. Jere- 
miah's complaint, ch. xx. 7. seems impious and undutiful ; 
but this inconsistent with v. 11, 13. nn£3 signifies not deceive, 
but allure, alluding to ch. i. 5, 10. xv. 16. not deceived, for 



TO MORALITY. 409 

warned, ch, 1. 17 — 19. The word so used Gen. ix. 29 
Oil oir ma gin, Prov. xxv. 15. Hi; . ii. 1-;. — stronger, pre 
vail, not foced. p'H / rf.//, or encoura?:e. Deut. i. 38 
iii. 28. I.«a. x'i. 7, &c. Blayn.-— Peter and Paul's contest. 
Dissension between Paul and Barnabas. Paul's excu 
Acts xxiii. 5. 

1206. None of the actions recorded of Jesus Christ 
are, in the smallest degree, immoral^ or inconsistent 
with sinless perfection. 

Hih severe rebukes of the Jews, of Peter. His hurtful mira- 
cles. John ii. 4, 10. seeming disrespect to his mother — asser- 
tion that his hour was not come — encouraging intemperance. 
Chandler, Ans. to Woolston. John vii. 8. not going up to 
the feast. John viii. 3, &c. the woman caught in adultery. 
The passage, however, is doubtful. 
Michael. Marsh's Transl. Griesb. 

1207. 2. God's command to Abraham to sacrifice 
Isaacj has been represented as a command to commit 
murder in its most horrid form, and, consequeRtly, as 
inconsistent with the holiness of God to give ; but it 
may be vindicated, whether we consider it as only a 
symbolical action, or whether, without this, we resolve 
it into God's sovereignty over the lives of his crea- 
tures. 

Warb. Div. Leg. Tillots. vol. 2. Serm. 2. Answerers to 
Morgan. 

1208. The Israelites borrowing from the Egyptians 
valuable things, which they never intended to restore, 
is represented as an act of injustice ; and the divine 
direction, by which they did it, as authorizing theft : 
but God has the property of all things, and may trans- 
fer it from one to another in what way he pleases ; if 

52 



410 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

they had intended to restore them, Pharaoh's sudden 
order to them to leave Egypt, might have put it out 
of their power ; but, in fact, the words signify, not 
that they borrowed, but that they asked or demanded 
them, and that they were given them voluntarily. 

Tillots. vol. 2. Burnett's B. L. Kennic. Remarks. 

1209. The extirpation of the Canaanites, which the 
Jews executed by divine command, is represented as a 
shocking instance of cruelty ; but their wickedness 
was so great, as to deserve such exemplary punishment 
from Godj as might prove a warning to other nations ; 
he might as justly destroy them by the sword of the 
Israelites, as by famine, pestilence, or any other judg- 
ment; he gave full proof, by miracles, that he had 
commissioned the Israelites for this very purpose ; 
and, their being thus commissioned, had the strongest 
tendency to impress them with an abhorrence of 
idolatry. 

Shuckford's Connex. Findlay, Part 2. p.l25. Leland against 
Morgan. Lowman, Heb. Gov. p. 2£0, &c» 

1210. 3. The Mosaic law punishing idolatry with 
death, has been represented as unjust, and giving 
countenance to persecution for religious opinions : but 
the Israelites were commanded to put to death only 
such Israelites as apostatized to idolatry, and still 
remained members of their own community ; and their 
government being a Theocracy, idolatry was in it, 
strictly, the political crime of high treason, which, in 
every state, is justly punishable with death. 

Locke Oft Toleration. Warb. Div. Leg. 



TO xMORALlTY. 411 

1211. It has been asserted by some, that the law of 
Moses, Lev. xxvii. 28, 29. concerning devoted things 
to be put to death, authorized human sacrifices ; and, 
Jephtha's sacrificing his daughter, Judg. xi. 34, &c. 
Samuel's hewing Agag in pieces before the Lord, 

1 Sam. XV. 33. and David's delivering seven of Saul's 
posterity to the Gibeonites, to be put to death by them, 

2 Sam. xxi. 2, &c. have been represented as instances 
of human sacrifices, conformably to that law : But, as 
there are express prohibitions of sacrificing their chil- 
dren, Deut. xii. 30, 31. Ps. cvi. 37, 38, Jer. vii. 31. 
Ezek. xvi. 20, 21.; so, there not only is no direction 
to sacrifice any other human creature, nor any rites 
appointed for such sacrifice ; but also, it would have 
rendered the priest unclean, by touching a dead body; 
and the sacrifice of a man is expressly declared abom- 
inable, Isa. Ixvi. 3. As no devoted thing could be 
sacrificed, at all, the law in question cannot possibly 
relate to sacrifice, and it is capable of a very different 
meaning ; it is most probable, that Jephtha did not 
sacrifice his daughter, but devoted her to perpetual 
virginity ; and the other two instances alleged have 
no relation to sacrifice. 

Sjkes's Connex. c. 13 Chandler-s Answ. to Hist, of the Man 
after God's own heart. Lowth on Isa. xlii, 16. 

1212. 4. The Scripture seems, in some places, to 
ascribe to God such human passions, and such actions, 
as are vicious ; but it is only by figurative expressions, 
which, when properly explained, imply nothing im- 
moral. 
Jealousy— fury — swearing in wrath — repenting — deceiving men 
— hardening Pharaoh's heart — putting a lying spirit into 



412 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

prophets — punishing children for the sins of their parents. 
Isa xi. 2. Lowth. 

^.^ 1213. There is no part of the doctrine of the New 
Testament that gives encouragement to any species of 
immorality ; the appearance of it has arisen only from 
misinterpreting particular texts^ or misexplaining 
general doctrines. 

Matth. X. 34, &c. *' Send a sword" — only foretells persecution 
bj enemies. 

Luke xvi. 1—12. Parable of unjust steward gives no encour- 
agement to dishonesty. 

Death of Christ. Justification by faith. Divine assistances. 

1214. 5. It is objected to the prophets, that they 
foretell things which did not come to pass ; but with- 
out reason ; for the examples produced are either 
misunderstood, or, they are conditional promises and 
threatenings, not absolute predictions. 

Tindal. c. IS. 

2 Kings viii. 10. Elisha's answer to Hazael. ih for vh» 

1 Chron, xxxiv. 28 xxvv. 23. Jonah. 

Seeming assertions that the last day was near, 1 Cor. x. 11. 

Rom. xiii. 11, 12. Heb. ix. 26, Jam. v. 7, 8. 1 John ii. 18. 

2 Pet. iii. 12, IS. Phil. iv. 5. 1 Thess. iv. 15, &c. 

1215. It is asserted, that the imprecations pro- 
nounced by the prophets, particularly in many passa- 
ges of the Psalms, show a spirit of malice inconsistent 
with humanity, and highly vicious : it is an improper 
vindication of these, either to allow that malice was 
consistent with the spirit of the Old Testament, though 
not of the New, or, to say that the prophets pro- 
nounced them against men, not as their own enemies, 



TO MORALITY. 413 

but as the enemies of God : but, some of them appear 
harsh only by the strong figurative style in which 
they are expressed, and, when taken out of this, ap- 
pear very allowable wishes ;^ all of them may be con- 
sidered, not as prayers, but simple predictions, the 
imperative being put for the future (which is a com- 
mon Hebrew idiom,) and shown to be so put, by the 
future being used in other parts of the prediction ;^ 
and this idiom is more natural in prediction, than in 
other kinds of composition, because it is the immedi- 
ate result of combining idioms common in the pro- 
phetical style ; for, as the prophets are often com- 
manded to do a thing, when it is only meant that they 
should foretell it,^ so they often do foretell a thing, by 
commanding it to be done,"* and they often express 
their predictions in an address to God ;* the union of 
which two idioms gives them the appearance of im- 
precations. 

^Ps. X. 5, — 2 pg, xxviii. 4, 5. — » Jer. i. 10. Isa. vi. 10. Ezek. 
xliii. 3 — * Isa. xlvii. 1.-^* Isa. ix. 3. 

1216. It is said, that some of the actions which the 
prophets did by the direction of God, are indecent or 
immoral ; but some of them are by no means so when 
rightly conceived, and others were either merely sym- 
bolical, or only represented in vision, or even merely 
related by the prophet. 

Tindal, ib. 

Isa. XX. 3. Going naked. Jer. xiii. 4, 6. xxvii. 2, 3. Ezek. 

iv. passim. Hos. i. 2, &c. Horsley's Hosea, Pref. 

1217. It is said, that there are, in some places of 
Scripture, expressions and figures which are indecent, 



414 PASSSAGES UNREASONABLY SEVERE. 

or nearly obscene ; but, the simplicity of manners 
which then prevailed, made such expressions much 
less offensive than they appear to us. 
Song of Solomon. Ezek. xvi. xxiii. 



SECT. III. 



Passages unreasonably Severe. 

1218. There are passages in Scripture, which 
seem unreasonably severe, or to enjoin what is im- 
practicable. 

1219. There are instances of punishments inflicted, 
which seem too severe for the crimes committed ; but, 
they only seem such, when all the circumstances of the 
crimes, and the exigencies which required the punish- 
ments, are not duly considered. 

1220. There are doctrines and assertions which ap- 
pear hard, inconsistent with the goodness of God, or 
unsuitable to the weakness of man ; but, the appear- 
ance vanishes, when the passages which contain them 
are properly explained. 

Matt. xix. 23, &c. " A rich man, enter into the kingdom of 

God"— who " trusts to riches," Mark x. 24. 
John vi. 51 — 58. Eating Christ's flesh. 
Matth. xii. 31. Mark iii. 28. Luke xii. 10, Blasphemy 

against the Holy Ghost, v. 36. Idle words. 



PASSAGES UNREASONABLY SEVERE. 415 

Heb. vi. 4 — 6. Impossible to renew to repentance. 
John V. 16. The sin unto death. 

1221. Of the precepts of Scripture objected to as 
unreasonably severe, or impracticable, some appear 
such, only by their being expressed in figurative and 
metaphorical terms, the meaning of which, and not 
the sound, ought to be attended to. 

Matth. V. 30. " Cut off a right hand, pluck out a right eye." 
Matth. xix. 12. Eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. 

1222. Others appear hard, only on account of some 
idiom in which they are expressed, but which has an 
established meaning, according to which they arc just 
and reasonable precepts. 

Expressed absolutely, when only comparison meant. 

Matth. vi. 19. *• Lay not up treasures on earth." John. vi. 97. 

" Labour not for the meat which perisheth.'* 
Col. iii 2. " Set not your affections on things on earth.'* 

1223. Others derive their seeming severity, only 
from the ambiguity of some of the expressions used in 
them. 

Matth. V. 28. ** Look on a woman to lust after her — adultery." 
—married woman — desire to have carnal intercourse witli 
her. 

1224. Others appear hard, only by their being ex- 
pressed in general terms, which the nature of the 
thing, and often the context, shows, require some re- 
strictions and limitations. 

Matth. V. 39, 40. « Resist not evil." Luke vi. SO. 
Jam. ii. 10. Seeker, vol. 7. Serm. 3. Sherlock, vol. i. Disc. 
18. p. 347. Porteus, Serm. 15, 16. 



416 PASSAGES UNREASONABLY SEVERE, 

1225. Others are only hard to corrupt appetites and 
passions, but really enjoin no more than good morals 
absolutely require, in the circumstances to which the 
precepts refer. 

Denying one's self. Taking up the cross. Enduring persecu- 
tion. 



SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS. 417 



CHAP. VII. 



Seeming Contradictions to History^ and Matters of 

Fact. 



1226. There are, in Scripture, some appearances 
of contradiction to matters of fact belonging to his- 
tory, geography, and the like. Such appearances 
are found, either in the professed narrations of the 
sacred writers, — or, in their occasional allusions and 
references^ or, in the prophecies. 



SECT. I. 



Seeming Contradictions to Matters of Fact in the 
Narrations of the Sacred Writers. 



1227. The silence of profane histories concerning 
facts related in the sacred, cannot be consid- 
ered as contradicting them, because many of these 
facts are too ancient to come within the verge of pro- 
fane histories, or, of such a kind, that they could not 

naturally take notice of them. The silence, or omis- 
63 



418 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

sion, even of many historians, ought not to overturn 
the testimony of any one author who positively relates 
a matter of fact. 
Beausobre, p. 154. 

1228. Contradictions of facts related in Scripture, 
by historians who lived long after the date of them, 
ought to have no weight. 

Justin's account of the Israelites being driven out of Egypt. 

1229. The Scripture account of the peopling of the 
earthj first, by one pair, Adam and Eve, and after- 
wards, by the one family of Noah, has been represent- 
ed as inconsistent with facts, which indicate different 
races of men, and with the disjoined situation of 
America from the old world : but, no certain proof of 
the inconsistence has ever been produced ; on the con- 
trary, many known facts render it perfectly credible, 

1230. The Egyptian and Chinese catalogues of 
kings and heroes, carried back further than the begin- 
ning of the world according to Moses, are to be regard- 
ed as altogether fabulous. 

1231. Moses's account of the rise of the Assyrian 
Empire so early after the flood, in the time of Nimrod, 
is thought inconsistent with the greatness ascribed to 
it by Herodotus and Ctesias : but their accounts may 
be exaggerated ; and, by the chronology of the Sa- 
maritan and 70, its distance from the flood is much 
increased. 

Newton's Chron. c. 3. Whiston's Rem. on Newt. Shuckford's 
Connex v. % Pref. Stillingfleet, Grig. Sac. 1. 3. c. 4. § 9. 
Cumberland, Orig. Gent. Winder's Hist, of Knowledge, 
V. !^2. Whiston's Theory, p. IST, &c. Jackson's Chronol. 



' TO MATTERS OF FACT. 4l9 

1232. Moses's account of the division of the land of 
Egypt has been represented as contradictory to Dio- 
dorus Siculus^ but is really consistent with his ac- 
count. 

Warburt. Div. Leg. Vol. 3. p. 63. 

1233. Several circumstances relating to the consti- 
tution, the customs, and the state of Egypt mentioned 
by Moses, seem to contradict the accounts given in 
other histories ; but are really consistent with them, 
so far as these histories are authentic. 

1234. It is said, that the land of Canaan could not 
have nourished so many inhabitants as to supply the 
number of fighting men, a million and a half, mention- 
ed 2 Sam. xxiv. 9. 1 Chron. xxi. 5. nor to have sup- 
ported so many cattle as are said to have been sacri- 
ficed, particularly 120,000 sheep, and 22,000 oxen, at 
Solomon's dedication of the temple, 1 Kings viii. 63.: 
but, if there has no mistake crept into the numbers, it 
must be ascribed to the surprising fertility of the 
country. 

1235. It is said that the treasure mentioned as 
amassed by David, for the purpose of building a tem- 
ple, 1 Chron. xxix. 4, 7. is incredible, being more 
than all the gold of all the princes now upon earth, 
put together : but, there may be a corruption in the 
numbers ; and, besides, we are not so well acquainted 
with the weights mentioned, as to be sure what was 
the real quantity ; nor do we know certainly, what 
was then the comparative value of the precious metals, 
nor what resources for obtaining them, now lost, there 
were at that time. 



420 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 

1236. Several seeming contradictions, of the sacred 
to profane historians^ arise only from theyir calling the 
same persons, or places, by different names. 

Prid. Connex. B. 1. 

Tiglath Pileser is said, 1 Chron. v. 26. to have carried the tea 
tribes and multitudes, from Damascus, into Media ; and it 
is pretended, that he was Ninus junior ; and, that not he, 
but Arbaces, had Media (Usher. Annal. a. 3257.) : but, it 
appears from Diodorus Siculus (lib. 2.) that Arbaces had 
both these countries ; and, consequently, he is the same with 
Tiglath Pileser. 

Herod. 1. 2. gives an account of Necho's taking the city of 
Cadytes, after his victory at Magdolum. From 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. 3. it appears that he had taken Jerusalem, after his 
victory at Megiddo. — this the same ; Jerusalem called Al- 
kuds, i. e. the holy city, by the neighbouring nations, and so 
called by them to this day. 

1237. Some seeming contradictions, between the sa- 
cred and profane historians, arise from the latter trans- 
ferring to others what belonged to the Israelites, and 
disguising the real facts with false circumstances. 

Isa. xxxvii. 2 Kings xix. 2 Chron. xxxii. The destruction of 
Sennacherib's army before Jerusalem — probably by the Siroc 
wind." — but, Herod. 1. 2. destruction of the same army before 
Pelusium, in the time of Sethon, by rats making their arms 
useless ;— from Egyptian priests, who hated the Jews, in 
honour of their own nation. 
Prid. Con. B. 1. 

1238. Some seeming contradictions of the sacred 
history to profane, arise from the latter being confused 
and inaccurate in points of chronology. 

1239. Some seeming contradictions between sacred 
and profane historians are reconciled by the more ac- 
curate narrations of other profane historians. 



TO MATTERS OF FACT. 421 

Daniel mentions four kings of Babylon and Persia,— Nebuchad- 
nezzar, — Belshazzar,— Darius, the Mede, — and Cyrus. The 
first is acknowledged ; the second is mentioned, though by 
other names, — Labynetus, by Herod. — Nabonnedochus, by 
Megisth. — Nabonedus, by Beros.— the third is not mentioned 
at all, nor room left for him in Beros. and Canon of Ptolomy ; 
but he is the Cyaxares of Xenophon ; (Halifax, Serm. 2. 
Prid. Con. B. 2.) — omitted by the otiiers, because he was onlj 
the nominal king, Cyrus having the real power. 

1240. Most of the seeming contradictions between 
the sacred historians and Josephus arise from his hav- 
ing disguised, and departed from the truth, in order 
to accommodate his work to the taste, or to avoid the 
censure of the Greeks and Romans, to whom he was 
desirous of recommending it. 

1241. Some seeming contradictions between sacred 
and profane history, are owing only to their reckoning 
their time from different seras. 

Cyrus's reign 30 years, viz. from his coming to assist Cyaxares. 
Cic. de Div. 1. 1. — 9 years, viz. from his taking Babylon. 
Ptolom. can. — 7 years, from his becoming sole monarch. 
Xenoph. Cyropaed. This last is followed by Ezra i. T. '*the 
first year of Cyrus." 

Shuckford's Conn. Prid. Conn. Stackhouse's Hist, of the 
Bible. Warb. Div. Leg. 



422 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS 



SECT. II. 



deeming Contradictions to Matters of Fact, in occasional 
References, 



1242. The Scripture often occasionally refers^ or 
incidentally alludes, to matters of fact, in a way that 
seems contradictory to the accounts of these matters of 
fact given by profane historians. 

1243. These appearances of contradiction are of the 
same kinds, arise from the same causes, and are re- 
moved by the same means, with the appearances of 
contradiction in professed narrations. 

Jer. li. 25. Babylon is addressed, " O destroying mountain,^^ 
— but, lay in a plain. — 'reconciled from Berosus. 

Newton on Prophecy, v. 1. p. 279. 
Isa. iii. 16. to the end. Lowth. Ch. xlix. 16, 23. 1. 1, 6. li, 23. 
lii. 2. liii. 8. Ivii, 6—9. Ixv. 3, 4. Matth. xxi. 12. 
See Lowth on Isa. Ixii. 6. 

1244. There are, in the New Testament, several re- 
ferences and allusions to facts, customs, and manners, 
which seems, at first sight, contrary to the accounts of 
these in profane histories ; but, are so far from being 
really inconsistent with them, that, for the most part 
they show very great exactness. 

Lardner's Credib. P. 1. V. 2. 



TO MATTERS OF FACT. 423 



SECT. Ill, 



Seeming Contradictions to Matters of Fact^ in 
Prophecies, 



1245. The events foretold in the prophecies of Scrip- 
ture, are often such as fall within the province of pro- 
fane history ; and, the relations of them given in it, 
are sometimes such, as seem not to verify the predic- 
tions. 

1246. When the histories of any period, to which 
a prediction relates, are lost or imperfect, this renders 
it impossible for us to perceive clearly and fully the 
completion of the prediction. 

Want of regular histories of the Eastern nations. 

isa. xliii. 3. Lowth. " I gave Egypt for thy ransom, Ethiopia 
(or Cush,) and Seba for thee.'- Commonly applied to Sen- 
nacherib's invasion, who, when he was just ready to fall 
upon Jerusalem, was providentially diverted from that de- 
sign, and led to turn his arms against the Egyptians, and 
their allies, the Cushian Arabians, who were perhaps joined 
by their neighbours the Sabians. Some objections, See ch. 
XX. xxxvii» 9. Vitringa explains it of l^halmanezer's being 
diverted from his designs against the kingdom of Judah^ 



424 SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS, 

after he had destroyed that of Samaria, by turning the war 
against the Egyptians, Cushians, and feabians. But, no clear 
proof of this from history, which, however is very deficient. 
Others refer it to no particular events, but think it means, in 
general, that God often saved his people at the expense of 
other nations, whom he gave up to destruction, as it were, in 
their stead. 

1247. Sometimes, there is an appearance of incon- 
sistence, between some parts of a prediction, and some 
particulars of the event, as related by profane histori- 
ans ; but, it proceeds from some confusion, or mistake^^ 
in the relations of these historians. 



COMPLICATED DIFFICULTIES. 425 



'CHAP. VIII. 



Complicated Difficulties, 

1248. Besides the several simple kinds of diflical- 
ties which have been already considered, there are, 
in Scripture, complicated difficulties ; that is, passages 
in which several of these simple kinds occur together. 

1249. There are passages, in which there are differ- 
ent difficulties, in the reading, — or, in the sense, — 
or in both, and which must be removed on different 
principles, — and difficulties admitting different pro- 
bable solutions, but none of which can be adopted with 
perfect certainty. 



SECT. I. 



Difficulties arising from different various Readings. 

1250. There are texts in which there are different 
various readings, which arise from different causes, and 
must be determined on different principles. 

Gen. xlix. 6. *' In their self-will they digged down a wall." 
•^la?, "a wall,'— no such circumstance in the history, ch, 
xxxiv. 25, &c. — would have been the least part of their 
54 



426 DIFFICULTIES IN READING. 

crime. Some read "^W " an ox," — " houghed the oxen," 
inarg. but this not true, ch. xxxiv. 28, 29. thej carried them 
away. — probably "^lif " prince," this said ch. xxxiv. 26. 
" Hamor also, and Sichem (the prince and his son) they 
slew.*' n}'il\ " self-will," — but every where signifies " be- 
nevolence, favour." — probably should be iTi^jr, " wrath," 
as in the next verse, structure. " In their anger they slew 
a man, and in their wrath they slew a prince. Cursed be 
their anger, for it was fierce ; and their wrath, for it was 
cruel." Syr. 

Ken. Diss, 1. p. 56^ &c. 

1 Chron xi. 8. 
lb p. 48, &c. 

Acts xiii. 23. " Of this man's seed, hath God, according to 
his promise (i^ysipt) raised unto Israel a Saviour, Jesus " 
Instead of tsyeipe, is found jjyays in 14 MSS. sortie of them of 
great authority. Arab. Ethiop. Vulg. Chrysost. Athanas. 
Theophyl. 2 editions, the best supported reading ; the other, 
taken by mistake from v. 22, Instead of <r<wT^/><» Itjerewj is 
o-otTTj^ietv in 15 MSS. Arab. Ethiop. Chrysost.-^— this, though 
so well supported, disturbs the sense, and ei9nstrues not With 
what follows. 

Jer. xlvi. 15. Ken, Diss. Gen. 

Isa. V. 1 8. Lowth. 

Isa. vii. 18, 19, 20, &c. lid. 

Isa. xvi. 8, 9. lid. 

Isa. xxxii, 13. lid. 

Isa. xlii. 16. lid. 



DIFFICULTIES IN SENSE. 427 



SECT. II. 



Complicated Difficulties in the Sense* 



1251. In some passages, there are difficulties in the 
sense, of different kinds, and which must be removed 
by different means. 

1 Cor. xi. 3 — 15. *' Man praying or prophesying with his head 
covered, dishonoureth his head," allusion to the customs and 
sentiments of the Greks, to whom he wrote ; for the Jewish 
custom contrary. " His head," i. e, himself, does what must 
appear indecent to his hearers. But, '* every woman — with 
her head uncovered, dishonoureth her head." Here, various 
difficulties, 1. He supposes women to speak in public, yet 
forbids this, ch. xiv. 34, 35. Some understand this prohibi- 
tion with the exception of a special commission, by having 
the gift of prophecy ; but it is absolute, and given in relation 
to this very case of the gift of prophecy. — Others, that by 
praying or prophesying here, he means, being present at them ; 
this is a sense without authority. Others, that the prohibi- 
tion respects the church where men and women meet to- 
gether ; the supposition, separate assemblies of women only ; 
the church not mentioned in this paragraph. This agreeable 
to the Greek manners ; this the most probable sense. — 
2. How is the man the glory of God, and the woman the 
glory of the man ? v. 7. Some, " glories in ;" others, " is an 
effulgence from;" this, one signification of "1133 which the 
70 render So^cc. Others, " glorifies," was made to glorify. 
Others, " is the likeness or similitude ;" this the sense of 
n:iDn which is twice rendered So^tc by the 70. 3. What is 
meant by the woman having e|oyc-/«i» power on her head ? 
v. 10. Some, figuratively, for a veil; but no evidence for 



428 DIFFICULTIES IN SENSE. 

this sense of the word — connects not with the principle, v. 9. 
from which it is an inference. Others, literally; and "h?r 
head,'' figuratively, for the man — " to hold or acknowledge 
power in the man," viz. in her general behaviour. This 
equivalent to 1 Tim. ii. 11,12,13. — 4. Atec rov^ ecyytXcv?^ 
** because of the angels." (1) Some, evil angels, who would 
be gratified by their indecency; but this not probable. (2) 
Others, good angels, " after the example of the angels," Isa. 
vi. 2. ; but this not the meaning of S'tcc. Others, "because 
they observe your conduct." Others, " to show subjection 
to the angels " Others, '* out of reverence to angels," as 
fellow- worshippers, according to an opinion of the Jews. 
(3) Others, *' the teachers of the church." Others, " mes- 
sengers, sent by the men into the separate assemblies of the 
women** — or, "spies sent by the Pagans ;" hard to fix on one 
meaning. — 5. "Nature," v. 14. general and extensive custom. 

2 Cor. iii. 13 — iv. 6. An allegorical discourse, for which the 
apostle takes occasion, from the preceding mention of Moses 
throwing a veil over his face, when it shone — v. 13. "that 
the children of Israel could not look," &c. referring it to 
Moses ; — this suits not the apostle's design, to vindicate his 
plainness of speech, nor almost makes sense ; refers to the 
ministers of the gospel, " not any veil of ours that prevents 
them from perceiving the design of the law, but (v. 14.) the 
blindness of their own minds, as if they were veiled when 
they read the Old Testament, though Christ answers its 
description so exactly, as might convince them ; but (v. 16.) 
when they lay aside prejudice, they will see it clearly." 
v. 17. " The Lord is that Spirit," alluding to v. 6. *' a min- 
ister, not of the letter, but of the spirit," the spirit and in- 
tention of the Old Testament, v. 18. connected with the 
beginning of v. 13. " Moses put a veil — but we all with open 
face," &c. ; " we," the ministers of the New Testament, 
** with open face," not veiled, Kix,Td7rrpi^ofi.tvot "reflecting as 
mirrors the glory of the Lord," the shining light of the gos- 
pel, " are changed into the same image, from glory to glory," 
with a continued and increasing brightness, not like the 
transient lustre of Moses's face, v. 7. "as from the Lord, 



DIFFICULTIES IN READING AND SENSE. 429 

the Spirit," KotB-ctTrep uvo Kvptov, w»fyfc«Td5, illuminated with 
brighter rays of light than Moses, and, therefore, might speak 
with greater freedom, as he infers, ch iv. 1. "Therefore — 
we faint not," ovk cKKecKovfiev^ restrain not speech ; " but v. 2. 
having renounced," &c preach candidly. He goes on> v» 3. 
alluding to veil and open face. 



SECT. HI. 



Difficulties both in Reading and in Sense. 



1252. In some passages, there are difficulties both 
concerning the true reading^ and the sense. 

Isa. liii. David's lamentation. Ken Diss. 1. p. 118. 

Mic. V. 1 — 5- A remarkable prediction, quoted by the college 
of priests, Matt. ii. 6. both the beginning and end of it wrong 
marked in the Hebrew. V. 1. belongs to the preceding pre- 
diction ; this begins only v. 2. The end of it is cut off, and 
joined with v. 5. very improperly, '* this man shall be our 
peace in our war with the Assyrians."— V. 2. literally, 
*« And thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, art little to be among the 
thousands of Judah ; ' but in Matth. " art not the least." 
This affects not the accomplishment of the prophecy — ^no in- 
consistency ; though little, not the least. Some suppose the 
negative omitted in Micah, but without evidence. Others 
that ^ya signifies great as well as little, and means so in 
Micah. Others read the text in Micah interrogatively, " Art 
thou little ? No." This simplest. Arab. Pers. — "B^K 
" thousands," put for ^3iSs< " princes." " Whose goings 
forth have been from of old, from the days of the age." 
V. 3. " Therefore," &c. expresses not the sense of the 
Hebrew. " Truly he will continue to give them, until the 



4S0 DIFFICULTIES IN READING AKD SENSE. 

tmie that she who is a-bearing hath born ;" allusion to Isa. 
vii. 14. "Then, his excellent brethren, his chosen compan- 
ions, shall dwell with the children of Israel." V, 4. " And 
lie shall stand and feed in the strength of the Lord, in the 
majesty of the name of Jehovah his God ; and they (his 
brethren) shall abide," be established ; " for now shall he be 
great unto the ends of the earth." And (v. 5 ) "this man 
shall be the peace," reconcile us to God. 

Isa. iii. 6, 7. Lowth in 1. vi. 10. Id. viii. 12 — 18. Id. xvi. 1. 
Id. xvi. 7. Id. xl viii. 16. Id. Jer. xvi. 7. Ken. Diss. Gen. 
§ 177. 

John xvi. 8—11. P. 2. C. 2. S. 2. Acts ii. 30, Sfc. ib. Rom. 
i. 32. Mill in loc. 

Gal. iv, 22 — 31. It is an allegory, but is produced as an ar- 
gument. Collins. But UTtvot ea-Tiv ecXXr^yo^ovf^tevcc, should be 
rendered, "which things are allegorized," viz. by Isa. ch, 
liv. 1. Sarah, a remarkable instance of a woman long barren, 
having a numerous posterity ; by the other woman, is meant 
Hagar. And these two are put by the prophet to represent 
the two covenants. "For this Agar is Mount Sinai in 
Arabia." Great variety in the reading of this clause ; ac- 
cording to some, it is an interpolation ; at any rate, a paren- 
thesis. Agar, a bond-woman, represents the earthly Jeru- 
salem, the present Jews, who are slaves to the ceremonial 
law. Sarah, a free-Vv oman, represents Christians, Jerusalem 
from above, a spiritual dispensation. This, the apostle says, 
is the true meaning of Isaiah's allegory, which also appears 
from the prophet himself. He does not, therefore, give the 
Galatians an allegory instead of an argument, but a real and 
strong argument, the express authority of Isaiah, than which, 
none could be to them more decisive. 

Psal. cix. Part of this psalm is applied to Judas, Acts i. 20. 
only by accommodation, according to the most general opin- 
ion ; but the whole seems to be a prediction of the malice 
and the punishment of the Messiah's enemies. Great part 
of it consists of imprecations, which some account for, by sup- 
posing that David only repeats the curses of his enemies. 



DIFFICULTIES IN SOLUTIONS. 



431 



This hypothesis, however, is inapplicable, and inconsistent 
with V. 8. to Judas. They are not imprecations, but predic- 
tions, expressed in the imperative, instead of the future, as 
is often done in Hebrew, particularly in the prophetical writ- 
ings. This observation removes all difficulty, and makes 
the psalm appear a very explicit prediction, of the ir^alice of 
the Jews against Christ, of his death, of his victory over his 
enemies ; and particularly, a very minute and circumstan- 
tial description of the fate of Judas, and of the desolation 
and dispersion of the Jews. 



SECT. IV. 

Difficulties which admit different Solutions. 

1253. In some passages there are difficulties which 
admit different solutions, none of which can be deter- 
mined to be certainly the one true solution, all hav- 
ing some degree of plausibility. This is unavoidable, 
from the very nature of criticism, which, not being a 
demonstrable science, few of its conclusions can be at- 
tended with absolute certainty, but most of them have 
only greater or less probability. Whenever the pro- 
babilities on the opposite sides are nearly equal, the in- 
stance falls under the present head. Accordingly, 
some of the examples under almost every principle al- 
ready considered, belong to this class, which renders 
it unnecessary to multiply separate examples. Instead 
of this, we may remark that, for the reason just now 
mentioned, we should avoid adopting even such solu- 
tions as appear best supported; too dogmatically, as if 
they were infallible. 



CONCLUSION. 



The subject^ which I have now brought to a conclu- 
sion, naturally leads me to recommend to you the study 
of the Scriptures, as your principal employment. They 
are the only pure sources of theological knowledge. 
Could we understand them perfectly, our knowledge 
would be complete, and free from error. If we study 
them with care, we cannot fail to acquire all necessary 
knowledge, and to escape every dangerous error. The- 
ology, derived immediately from them, will be simple, 
and wholly practical. If you would understand them, 
read them in the original languages, and be at pains 
to qualify yourselves for doing so. Take the assistance 
of versions, but rest not in them ; compare them with 
one another, and with the original. Take the assist- 
ance of commentators, but follow them not implicitly. 
When they are so very numerous, it is astonishing that 
so little can be learned from them ; one copies merely 
from another. You may be satisfied with a few of 
the best ; it would be waste of time to attempt consult- 
ing them all. The best of them often dwell on what 
has little difficulty, or is of little moment ; and, points 
on which you would wish most to be satisfied, you 
will often find passed over by them all. The best 
55 



434 CONCLUSION. 

have their prejudices and nostrums ; and, for support- 
ing them, distort and wrest many passages. Often you 
will find light from critical essays on particular texts, 
when general and voluminous commentators afford you 
none. Let not your explications be dictated by your 
accidental present notions ; but founded on, and tried 
by, well-established general principles of sound criti- 
cism. It is for assisting you in discovering these, that 
the view which I have given, both of the Sources and 
of the Objects of Scripture Criticism is intended. Above 
all, fix a proper and upright aim in studying the Scrip- 
tures. Your sole aim should be, to discover the real 
sense of every passage, and to express it fairly >and 
distinctly. The real sense of a passage is, not any 
sense which the words will bear, nor any sense which 
is true in itself; but only that which was intended by 
the writer in that particular passage. You should 
endeavour to exhaust the full sense of a passage, but 
without unduly stretching it, or finding more in it than 
was intended. Avoid an ostentation of learning, in 
explaining Scripture. Never alFect certainty and 
decisiveness, where the sense is doubtful. Take care 
not to overlook the obvious meaning of texts, in 
searching for ingenious, farfetched, or mystical mean- 
ings. Read the Scripture, not with a view to support 
your own preconceived opinions from it, or to stretch, 
or explain it away, so as to agree with them ; but lay 
aside all prejudices, that, by reading it, you may 
perceive how far your opinions need to be corrected. 
Be not prepossessed in favour of any sense, merely 
because it is the most received, the most approved, or 
the most popular. Be not biassed by your particular 



CONCLUSION. 435 

turn and temper, to adopt the sense which is most 
agreeable to them. Especially reject all such loose 
interpretations as would favour vice. If you cannot 
clear up the more difficult parts of Scripture, make 
yourselves well acquainted with the plain parts of it ; 
imbibe their purifying spirit, and be careful to act 
agreeably to them. 



l^INIS. 



ERRATA. 

Page 35, line 20, for xni read Nin. 

321, *' 23, " B-^iotftQsvivTt read 3-§tuf4.^evovTi. 
341, « 3, after hour, for (,) read (.) 






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